Load bearing wall (fig. 1)- the main carrier-fencing vertical design buildings, which rests on and transfers to the foundation the load from the floors and the own weight of the wall, separating adjacent rooms in the building and protecting them from the external environment.

Self-supporting wall (fig. 2)- an external enclosing vertical structure that protects the interior of the building from the effects of the external environment, which rests on and transfers the load from its own weight to the foundation.

Fig. 2. Self-supporting wall (the outer wall rests on the foundation, and the ceiling is adjacent to the wall)

Curtain wall (fig. 3)- an outer wall resting on a ceiling within one floor with a floor height of no more than 6 m. (at a higher floor height, these walls are self-supporting) and protecting the building from the outside from the external environment.

Partition- an internal vertical curtain wall resting on the ceiling and separating adjacent rooms in the building.

In buildings with self-supporting and non-bearing external walls, loads from coatings, ceilings, etc. transferred to the frame or transverse structures of buildings.

In the house, walls that stand on the foundation and on which the floors rest will be carriers.

And the walls standing on the foundation without supporting the overlap on them will be self-supporting.

Fig. 3. Curtain wall (outer wall rests on the floor slab)

Walls of different constructive purposes bear different loads. To ensure the required bearing capacity for different walls, a certain wall thickness and the strength of the materials used are chosen.

For example, the internal and external load-bearing walls of buildings made of aerated concrete blocks up to 3 floors in height are recommended to be made from blocks of compressive strength classes not lower than B2.5, glue or mortar grade not lower than M75; at a height of up to 2 floors inclusive - not lower than B2 on glue or on a solution of grade not lower than M50.

For self-supporting walls of buildings with a height of up to 3 floors, the class of blocks must be at least B2.

According to the perception of loads, they are divided into:

• carriers
• non-bearing.

Depending on the materials used, the walls are conventionally divided into the following types:

• wooden from logs, beams, wooden frame
• brick made of solid and hollow clay
• ceramic and silicate bricks and blocks
• stone from cobblestone, limestone, sandstone, shell rock, tuff, etc.,
• lightweight concrete from gas silicate, expanded clay concrete, slag concrete, argolite, sawdust concrete
• soil concrete from adobe, compacted soil.

According to the constructive solution, the walls are:

• chopped from logs and assembled from wooden beams,
• small-block made of bricks and small blocks weighing more than 50 kg.,
• panel or panel board made of ready-made wall elements per floor,
• frame made of racks and straps with sheathing with sheet or molded materials,
• monolithic from concrete and soil,
• composite or multilayer using various materials and structures.

WHAT TO BUILD WALLS?

In the construction of summer cottages and cottages, the following materials are most often used for walls: brick, lightweight concrete (foam concrete, expanded clay concrete, etc.), wood (timber, log) and wood with insulation (frame walls). For the construction of frame walls, it is undeservedly rarely used relatively new material- cement particle boards (DSP). Consider their advantages, disadvantages and construction costs (prices for April 01, will rise by summer).

When choosing a wall material, consider the following considerations.
1."Rule of homogeneity" - all main walls (external and those internal, on which the floor rests) must be built of the same material and rest on the same foundation. A combination of brick and lightweight concrete, as well as DSP and wood when cladding frame walls, is permissible.
2.Distances between main walls(supports for wooden floor beams) should not exceed 4 m. reinforced concrete floor(for brick walls) this distance can be increased up to 7 m.
3. Materials for the construction of walls and their constructive solution are selected taking into account local climatic conditions, economy, given strength and durability of the building, internal comfort and architectural expressiveness of facades.

BRICK.
Dignity.
Brick walls are very durable, fireproof, not susceptible (unlike wooden ones) to the action of insects - pests and decay, and therefore they are durable. They allow you to apply reinforced concrete slabs overlap. This is necessary if you want to furnish a living space above a garage or a very large room. The small size of bricks allows you to build walls of complex configurations from them, lay out decorative elements of the facade. Due to the fire resistance of bricks, walls made of it can adjoin stoves and fireplaces, smoke and ventilation ducts can be laid inside brick walls. Brick walls have a high heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia - in summer it is cool behind them in any heat, in winter it is warm for a long time even after the heating is turned off.

Disadvantages.
Brick walls have a high thermal capacity and therefore thermal inertia, as well as a relatively high thermal conductivity. Therefore, if the house has not been heated in winter for at least two weeks, it will take several days to warm it up to comfortable conditions. Brick readily absorbs moisture. Because of this, during seasonal operation, the first weeks in a brick house are damp. The bricks that have collected moisture from the atmosphere in the fall freeze in winter, this leads (during seasonal operation) to rapid destruction - after 25 years the walls will require serious repair. Brick walls are very heavy and do not tolerate deformation, so they need strip foundation to the full depth of freezing. To ensure proper thermal insulation, brick walls must be very thick (in the Moscow region - 52 cm). In a house with useful area 50 sq. they will occupy "17 sq. m. - 1/3 of the area; for a house with an area of ​​200 sq. m. this ratio will be 1/6. After the completion of the laying of the walls, a year must pass before the start of finishing, the walls must" settle "

Output.
It is advisable to use bricks only in the construction of large cottages (several floors, floor area more than 200 sq. M.), Intended for year-round use.

Dignity.
The walls are made of lightweight concrete, fireproof, not susceptible (unlike wooden ones) to the action of insects - pests and decay, and therefore they are durable. The relatively small size of the blocks and the ease of their processing allow you to build walls of complex configurations from them. Due to the fire resistance of concrete, walls made of it can adjoin stoves, fireplaces and smoke ducts. Concrete walls have a high heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia - in summer it is cool behind them in any heat, in winter it is warm for a long time even after the heating is turned off. Foam concrete walls, in comparison with brick ones, have a lower heat capacity and, therefore, thermal inertia, as well as a relatively low thermal conductivity. Therefore, if the house was not heated in winter, it can be warmed up to comfortable conditions in a day. The thickness of foam concrete walls can be half that of brick walls. Lining foam concrete walls outside with decorative bricks does not increase their weight much, but it strengthens the walls and saves you from worries about finishing. Brick walls are much easier and cheaper than brickwork.

Disadvantages.
Foam concrete readily absorbs moisture. Blocks that have collected moisture from the atmosphere in the fall freeze in winter, this leads (during seasonal operation) to rapid destruction - after 25 years, the walls will require serious repair (this does not apply to expanded clay concrete, it is hydrophobic). Walls made of lightweight concrete do not tolerate deformations, therefore, they require a strip foundation or a foundation - a slab. After the completion of the walls, a year must pass before the start of their finishing; the walls must "settle" before finishing. Cracks can form on walls made of foam concrete during settlement.

Output.
Lightweight concrete occupies an intermediate position between brick and wood, and the higher it is specific gravity, the closer its properties are to those of a brick. It is advisable to use it in the construction of small cottages (no more than 2 floors) and summer cottages intended for year-round operation.

SIMPLE BAR.
Dignity.
Lumber walls have low thermal conductivity. Therefore, if the house was not heated in winter, it can be warmed up to comfortable conditions in a few hours. For timber walls the thickness of 15cm is sufficient. Wooden walls create a healthy microclimate in the house, they remove excess moisture from the room. The timber walls are relatively light and resistant to deformation. They can be built on pillar foundations or floating pillars. Wooden walls can withstand an unlimited number of freeze-thaw cycles, and therefore their service life can exceed 100 years.

Disadvantages.
Walls made of wood are highly flammable and susceptible to the action of insects - pests and decay, and therefore require special processing and constructive protection from moisture and fire. After the completion of the cutting of wooden walls, a year must pass before the start of their finishing, the walls before finishing must "settle", and the settlement (up to 10%) is much greater than that of stone or frame walls (3 - 1%). The timber deforms when it dries. Caulking squared walls is a complicated and expensive procedure. To minimize the consequences of these troubles (deformation and poor caulking), the timber walls from the outside and from the inside have to be sheathed with clapboard or DSP.

Output.
It is advisable to use wood in the construction of small cottages (no more than 2 floors) and summer cottages intended for seasonal or year-round use.

PROFILED BAR, SIMPLE AND CYLINDED LOG.
Dignity.
The same as for the timber walls. Plain log walls are more durable.

Disadvantages.
The same as for the timber walls. In addition, walls made of these materials require careful and beautiful caulking.

Output.
It is advisable to use such a tree in the construction of small cottages (no more than 2 floors) and summer cottages intended for seasonal or year-round use, when purely aesthetic considerations are in the first place.

Dignity.
Frame walls with "double" thermal insulation made of lightweight materials (foam, mineral wool, etc.) have the lowest thermal conductivity. Therefore, if the house was not heated in winter, it can be warmed up to comfortable conditions in a few hours. For frame walls, a thickness of 15 cm is sufficient. Frame walls are the lightest of all considered and are resistant to deformation. They can be built on pillar foundations or floating pillars. Frame walls can withstand an unlimited number of freeze-thaw cycles. CSP sheathing provides protection (albeit not absolute) from fire and moisture. In frame houses, the most free layout of the interior is possible. Costs of funds, effort and time for the construction of frame walls are minimal. There is no need to wait for "precipitation" before finishing. With well-organized work, enter frame house it is possible a month after the start of construction.

Disadvantages.
Walls made of wood are highly flammable and susceptible to the action of insects - pests and decay, and therefore require special processing and constructive protection from moisture and fire. Lining - the main material for cladding frame walls quickly (within 1-2 years) dries up, cracks appear on the wall (with correct work, they are not through). It is believed that the service life of frame houses does not exceed 30 years, but the use of modern materials can significantly increase it. An increase in the size of the house (L walls> 9m, height -> 2 floors) leads to a significant complication of the frame and a decrease in reliability. The use of siding for cladding is unacceptable, since it "does not breathe" - it does not let water vapor pass through.

Output.
It is advisable to use frame walls in the construction of summer cottages intended for seasonal or year-round use.

Logging for log and cobblestone walls, it is advisable to perform in winter, when the wood is less prone to shrinkage, decay and warping. For the walls they chop coniferous trees having a straight trunk with an escape of not more than 1 cm per 1 m in length. The diameter of the logs is chosen as equal as possible with the difference between the upper and lower cuts of no more than 3 cm.The thickness (diameter) of the logs is determined by the width required for climatic conditions longitudinal groove... At a design temperature of the outside air of - 20 ° C, it should be at least 10 cm, at - 300 ° C - at least 12 cm, at - 40 ° C - about 14-16 cm. The width of the groove is about 2/3 of the diameter of the log. The length of the logs is determined in accordance with the dimensions and layout of the house, taking into account the required allowance for felling a log house with the remainder (in a "cup"). When cutting walls, freshly cut logs with an average moisture content of 80-90% are used. They are easier to process and less deformed during natural drying when assembled. With a decrease in humidity to 15% (operating humidity in the middle zone of the country), the wood dries out and the size of the logs decreases in the longitudinal direction by about 0.1, in the transverse direction by 3-6%.

Log wall cutting usually performed near the place of installation, laying the logs "dry" without tow. After the end of felling, the walls should "stand" assembled (for 6-9 months, the moisture content of the wood decreases 3-5 times), then the logs are marked, the frame is rolled out and assembled already on tow, on pre-prepared foundations. In the process of drying and operation, chopped walls give significant shrinkage, reaching 1: 20-1: 30 of the initial height of the log house, therefore a gap (depending on the moisture content of the logs) of 6-10 cm is left over the window and door frames. The seams between the logs are caulked 2 times : the first time in rough form after the construction of the house, the second - after 1-1.5 years - after the final settlement of the walls.

The cutting of the walls begins from the laying of the first (flashing) crown made of thicker logs, hewn into two edges: one from the bottom side, the second from the inside. Since the logs in the longitudinal and transverse walls are displaced relative to each other by half their height, the first crown on two opposite walls is laid either on backing beams or plates, or on an uneven basement. For better organization drain (with a protruding base) under the first crown on the waterproofing layer, antiseptic boards are placed, to which galvanized roofing steel is attached. Bottom edge width flap- not less than 15 cm. Each subsequent crown of the log house is brought together with the previous one through a semicircular groove selected from the lower side of each log. To give stability to the walls, the crowns are interconnected with vertical plug-in thorns of rectangular (6x2 cm) or round (3-4 cm) sections with a height of 10-12 cm, placing them in each row in a checkerboard pattern every 1-1.5 m along the length of the log house; in the walls, it is necessary to have at least two thorns at a distance of 15-20 cm from the edges. The holes for the spikes in height must have a margin for draft, that is, they must be 1.5-2 cm more than the height of the spikes. Logs in a blockhouse are laid alternately with lumps in different sides to maintain the overall horizontal position of the rows. In the corners, the logs are connected in two ways: with the remainder (in the "cup") and without the remainder (in the "paw"). The intersection of the outer walls with the inner ones is also carried out in a "cup" or in a "paw". When cutting into a "cup" due to corner residues, about 0.5 m is lost on each log. In addition, the protruding ends of the logs interfere with subsequent cladding or wall cladding. Paw felling is more economical, but requires more highly skilled and accurate work.

Plank walls are erected with less labor costs, and highly qualified specialists are not required. An individual builder, having ready-made beams, can do this work on his own .. Unlike logs, cobbled walls are assembled immediately on ready-made foundations. If the basement of the house is sinking, then the drain is not made and the first crown is laid along a waterproofing layer with an external overhang above the base by 3-4 cm. The corners of the first crown are connected in half a tree, the rest are either on root spikes or on dowels.

Gusset bars"end-to-end" is fragile and creates blown vertical slits.
The connection on the root thorns is more technologically advanced: the cut of the tree for the thorn and the nest is made across the fibers, and chipping is done along. In addition, with this connection, the dowel seat is farther from the edge of the bar. To prevent horizontal shifts, the bars are interconnected by vertical dowels (dowels) with a diameter of about 30 mm and a height of 20-25 cm.The holes for the dowels are drilled after placing the bar on tow to a depth equal to approximately one and a half height of the bar, 2-4 cm more, than the length of the dowel.

In cobblestone walls, in contrast to log walls, horizontal seams are flat and therefore rain moisture penetrates into the room through them. To reduce the water permeability of the seams, a 20-30 mm wide bevel is removed (rounded off) from the outside on the upper edge of each bar, and the outer seams themselves are carefully caulked and covered with linseed oil, oil paint etc. The most effective protection of cobbled walls from the effects of weathering is cladding them with boards or facing with bricks. This makes it possible not only to protect the walls from the effects of external moisture and reduce the blow-through rate, but also to make them "warmer", and in case of brick cladding, even more fire-resistant.

To prevent biological destruction of wood, a ventilation gap of 4-6 cm wide is made between the boarding and the wall. If additional insulation of the walls of the house is necessary, this gap is expanded and filled with mineral wool. In this case, the top and bottom of the insulation must be left open. It is better to make the plank sheathing horizontal - this makes it easier to lay the insulation and creates more favorable conditions for vertical ventilation interior space... Brick cladding is also installed with a 5-7 cm gap from the wall. For ventilation of the interior space (including filled with insulation), air vents are left at the top and bottom of the brick cladding. Brick cladding is laid out either in half a brick, or with a modular brick having a thickness of 88 mm., "On the edge" and attached to the beams or logs with metal clamps, placed every 30-40 cm in height and after 1-1.5 m along the front the walls are staggered.

Clamps are a double-bent strip of galvanized roofing steel 3-5 cm wide and 15-20 cm long.One side it is attached with a bent end to a bar or log ( better with a screw), the other is embedded in brickwork with an end bend of 900 along the facing. The cladding and facing of cobbled and log walls is carried out after their complete settlement, i.e. not earlier than 1-1.5 years after construction.

FRAME WOODEN WALLS
Frame walls are considered the easiest option for construction. country house, since at a relatively low cost of wood, they can be no less warm and low-sound-conductive than felled log walls.

The frame, as a rule, consists of lower and upper wall straps, stiffening struts, as well as auxiliary elements such as intermediate posts and crossbars, between which door and window frames are located.

After assembling the frame with outside it is sheathed with boards about 20 mm thick. Instead, other durable and weather-resistant materials such as asbestos-cement boards can be used.

The following method is used to insulate walls. Boards are laid in two layers, leaving a space between them, which must be filled either with roll materials (tar paper, roofing felt), or with slab or bulk materials. Board and roll materials are attached to the wall with nails. The resulting seams are covered with a solution of gypsum or caulked with tow. When laying slabs in two layers, the joints between the slabs of the first layer must be overlapped by the slabs of the second layer.

So that humid air does not penetrate between the layers of boards, with inside the walls are covered with an insulating layer of roofing material, which is mixed with lime before use. It will reliably protect your house from rodents.

In addition to lime, as backfill, you can use slag, pumice, sawdust, moss, peat, sunflower husk, straw. The lighter the material, the lower its thermal conductivity. Before use, it must be thoroughly dried and antiseptic. And only after such processing, mix, lay in layers and tamp.

But despite the fact that dry backfills have a number of advantages (relative cheapness, availability, protection from rodents), they are characterized by one drawback, namely, they precipitate the house with the subsequent formation of unwanted voids, which cannot be attributed to advantages. To prevent this, the walls must be raised 300 mm above the ceiling beams and filled with backfill; gradually settling, it will fill the voids. It is better to use slab materials under the windows, and if this is not possible, then in this case we recommend that you arrange retractable window sills and add backfill through them.

Due to the fact that the backfill for the most part is considered a light and free-flowing material and, as we have already noted, gives a sediment, materials are added to it that turn it into a solid aggregate. One, perhaps, of the most frequently used materials is considered to be lime and gypsum (80% of sawdust is taken from 5% gypsum).

Some builders use wet backfills. When preparing them, a certain ratio of materials must be strictly observed, which are best taken in parts by weight. So, for example, 0.5 parts of gypsum and 2 parts of water are taken for 1 part of organic aggregate. Prepare as follows: on the striker poured layers of organic fillers, a binder, mix thoroughly and moisten with water. All this dries up in 2-3 weeks. Many builders make the mistake of using wet backfill when making thermal insulation materials(roofing felt, roofing material). In no case should this be done, since such materials can subsequently cause a fungus that is dangerous to wood.

The most effective insulating material is boards made from organic materials, 50x50 in size, with a thickness of 5 to 15 cm. For their manufacture, take 4 parts of clay dough, 0.3 parts of quicklime, 2 parts of water. In the absence of lime, you can use cement (0.3 parts per 2 parts of water). All constituent components are mixed; if they are dry, they must be moistened with water. Everything is thoroughly mixed again until smooth, laid in molds, rammed and dried under a canopy or in closed room... Drying time depends on the binder. If you used gypsum or lime, then the drying time will be limited to two to three weeks, and if clay, you will have to wait three to four weeks.

BRICK WALLS.
For the masonry of the walls of residential buildings, bricks of various types are used. In order to save materials, it is not recommended to use ordinary solid brick for solid masonry. Solid walls are best laid out of light and hollow bricks, using two-row and multi-row dressing systems. With double-row dressing of masonry, the front rows of pokes alternate with rows of spoons and a significant number of halves and three-quarters of a brick is required for dressing. Laying in a multi-row dressing consists of spoon rows, overlapped through every fifth row (in height) with a butt row. The thickness of horizontal and vertical mortar joints should be no more than 10-12 mm. Examples of masonry walls and their details (corners, pillars, walls, as well as wall junction) are shown in the figure.

When laying, the solution is fed to the wall from a box (with low sides) with a shovel-bucket and spread in the form of a convex bed. The brick must first be laid out on the wall for spoon rows in stacks of 2 bricks flat, with the long side along the wall, and for the butt rows with the long side across the wall. The masonry is carried out, observing strict horizontal and vertical rows, monitoring the correctness of the front surfaces of the walls. For better adhesion of the mortar to the brick, especially when laying in hot weather, it is recommended to moisten the brick with water before laying. This recommendation applies to all types of masonry. If the walls are going to be plastered in the future, then the masonry should be done in a washer, that is, without filling the joints with mortar at the surface of the wall to be plastered. With this method, the plaster adheres more firmly to the wall surface. For the laying of massive stone walls, cold mortars are used, and for thin walls that require an increase in thermal qualities, warm plastic mortars are used. In warm solutions, sand is replaced with ground fuel or blast-furnace slag, ash, ground tuff, pumice stone, etc. a large number... With external plaster, the wall with such mortars acquires the best heat-insulating qualities.

To install door and window frames, openings with trimmed quarters are left in the masonry. The openings are covered with prefabricated reinforced concrete, ordinary brick or wedge-shaped lintels. When arranging ordinary jumpers at the level of the top of the opening, formwork is installed from boards with a thickness of 40-50 mm, on which the mortar is spread with a layer of up to 2 cm and reinforcement is laid (pack steel, round 4-6 mm steel) at the rate of 1 rod per 1/2 brick wall thickness. The ends of the reinforcement should go into the walls by 25 cm. Wedge lintels are also arranged along the previously laid formwork, laying the brick on the edge from the edges to the middle of the lintel and with a slope at the edges to form a spacer (wedge). It is allowed to arrange jumpers made of tarred boards with a thickness of 5-6 cm, the ends of which should be deepened into the walls by 15-25 cm.

PARTITIONS.
Partitions must be soundproof, nail-proof, strong and stable. Partitions are installed on the floor structure prior to flooring. In places where partitions made of combustible materials are adjacent to stoves and chimneys, brick cuttings should be arranged along the entire height so that the distance from the partition to the inner surface of the stove or chimney is at least 40 cm.

FRAME.
The frame of the partitions consists of racks 5-6 cm thick and 9-10 cm wide with spikes at the ends, upper and lower straps of the same section with sockets for rack spikes. The racks are placed at a distance of 0.75-1.2 m from one another, with a thorn in the harness nest, and fastened with nails. To form a doorway, framing racks are installed with a crossbar (lintel) embedded on top. The door frame is nailed to the framing posts. The frame is sheathed horizontally on both sides with boards with a thickness of 1.9-2.5 cm. Boards with a width of more than 12 cm are punctured with an ax so that they do not warp when plastering. The voids between the two skins are filled with fine sieved dry slag to increase soundproofing and reduce fire hazard. In some cases, the frame of an interroom partition can be sheathed with fiberboards and plywood sheets without any filling. However, such partitions, being very light and simple in their design, have great sound conductivity.

GYPSUM PARTITIONS.
Partitions from gypsum boards placed before the device of a clean floor on boards with blocks nailed along the edges to form a gutter that prevents the boards from shifting to the sides. The laying of the slabs begins with the filling of the gutter in the bed with plaster mortar. The first row of plates is immersed in the solution with the groove up. The vertical seams between the slabs are poured with mortar. Before installing the next row of slabs, the groove of the first row is filled with mortar, etc. The partition is not brought up to the ceiling by 1-2 cm in order to be able to thoroughly dig in and seal the gap with mortar. High doorways are fenced with racks abutting against the ceilings. For low openings, the door frames are installed before the partition device. The lintel is carried out by simply overlapping slabs (with an opening width of less than 1 m) or by laying two reinforcement rods filled with gypsum mortar. To protect the gypsum boards from moisture, in the case of supporting the partition on concrete base the floor of the first floor, 2 rows of brickwork are laid under the partition on a layer of roofing roofing or roofing material. After laying, the plaster partition is plastered or rubbed.

BRICK PARTITIONS.
Brick partitions are laid with a thickness of 1/2 brick (12 cm). The basis for the partitions can be concrete preparation for the floors of the first floor or reinforced concrete ceilings. By wooden floors brick partitions, due to their significant weight, should not be done. Laying is carried out by tying vertical seams. The surfaces are plastered on both sides. Contiguity brick partitions to walls and ceilings is carried out in the same way as with gypsum partitions. Above the doorways, lintels are arranged, resting them on 2 reinforcement bars in a cement mortar.

By appointment walls are external and internal, and on the perception of loads - carriers and non-carriers.

Depending on the materials used shared by the following types of walls:

wooden from logs, beams, wooden frame;

brick made of solid and hollow clay, ceramic and silicate bricks and blocks;

stone from cobblestone, limestone, sandstone, shell rock, tuff, etc.;

lightweight concrete made of gas silicate, expanded clay concrete, polystyrene, slag concrete, wood concrete, sawdust concrete;

ground concrete from adobe, compacted pear.

By constructive decision walls are:

chopped from logs and assembled from wooden beams;

small-block made of bricks and small blocks weighing more than 50 kg;

panel or panel board made of ready-made elements of walls per floor;

frame made of racks and straps with sheathing with sheet or molded materials;

monolithic from concrete and soil;

composite or multilayer with different materials and designs used.

Materials for the construction of walls and their constructive solution are chosen taking into account local climatic conditions, economy, given strength and durability of the building, internal comfort and architectural expressiveness of facades.

Natural stones and solid bricks have the greatest strength and durability. At the same time, in terms of their heat-shielding qualities, they are significantly inferior to lightweight concrete, effective bricks and wood. Their use in "pure form" without a combination with other, less heat-conducting materials is justified only in the southern regions of the country.

When erecting brick walls, you should strive for lightweight masonry, using effective brick and arranging voids using a warm mortar. Solid masonry walls made of solid brick more than 38 cm thick is considered impractical.

Reliable in operation and 1.5 - 2 times cheaper than brick lightweight concrete walls based on slag, expanded clay or sawdust using cement. If you use prefabricated lightweight concrete blocks, you can significantly reduce the seasonal construction time.

Wood is a traditional material for the walls of low-rise buildings. Chopped and cobbled walls are the most comfortable for sanitary and hygienic requirements. Their disadvantages include low fire resistance and sedimentary deformation in the first 1.5 - 2 years.

In the presence of lumber and effective insulation, frame walls are quite justified. They, like chopped ones, do not require massive foundations, but unlike them, they do not have post-grouting deformations. When facing the frame walls with bricks, their fire resistance and capital are significantly increased.

In the southern regions with sharp changes in day and night temperatures of the outside air, walls made of soil concrete (adobe) behave well. Due to their high thermal inertia (they slowly heat up and cool down), they create an optimal thermal regime in such a climate.

You watched: Wall types

Walls are the main element of the house, which determines its appearance, operational and aesthetic characteristics. They must meet a number of requirements for architectural expressiveness, thermal protection and fire resistance, have sufficient strength and durability, provide the necessary sound insulation, etc.

The choice of material for the walls depends on the taste and financial capabilities of the owner of the house, the traditions of the building area, but you should pay attention to the neighboring houses and listen to the opinion of the architect. Your home should fit into the architectural ensemble and, regardless of the investment in construction, look beautiful and organic.

The material for the walls can be wood, brick, natural stone, as well as blocks and panels made of concrete with various additives (slag, expanded clay, sawdust, etc.).

According to their intended purpose, the walls are external and internal, and according to the perception of loads, they are load-bearing and non-load-bearing.

Depending on the materials used, the walls are conventionally divided into the following types:
wooden from logs, beams, wooden frame,
brick made of solid and hollow clay,
ceramic and silicate bricks and blocks,
stone from cobblestone, limestone, sandstone, shell rock, tuff, etc.,
lightweight concrete from gas silicate, expanded clay concrete, slag concrete, argolite, sawdust concrete,
soil concrete from adobe, compacted soil.

According to the constructive solution, the walls are:
chopped from logs and assembled from wooden beams,
small-block made of bricks and small blocks weighing more than 50 kg.,
panel or panel board made of ready-made wall elements per floor,
frame made of racks and straps with sheathing with sheet or molded materials,
monolithic from concrete and soil,
composite or multilayer using various materials and structures.

Materials for the construction of walls and their constructive solution are chosen taking into account local climatic conditions, economy, given strength and durability of the building, internal comfort and architectural expressiveness of facades.

Natural stones and solid bricks have the greatest strength and durability.
At the same time, in terms of their heat-shielding qualities, they are significantly inferior to lightweight concrete, effective brick and wood. Their use in "pure form" without a combination with other, less heat-conducting materials is justified only in the southern regions of the country.
When erecting brick walls, one should strive for lightweight masonry, using effective brick and arranging voids using a warm mortar.
Solid brick laying of solid brick walls with a thickness of more than 38 cm is considered inappropriate.

Reliable in operation and 1.5-2 times cheaper than brick lightweight concrete walls based on slag, expanded clay or sawdust using cement.
If you use prefabricated lightweight concrete blocks, you can significantly reduce the seasonal construction time.

Wood is a traditional material for the walls of low-rise buildings.
Chopped and cobbled walls are the most comfortable according to sanitary and hygienic requirements. Their disadvantages include low fire resistance and sedimentary deformation in the first 1.5-2 years.

In the presence of lumber and effective insulation, frame walls are quite justified.
They, like chopped ones, do not require massive foundations, but unlike them, they do not have post-construction deformations.
When facing the frame walls with bricks, their fire resistance and capital are significantly increased.

In the southern regions with sharp changes in day and night temperatures of the outside air, walls made of soil concrete (adobe) behave well. Due to their high thermal inertia (they slowly heat up and cool down), they create an optimal thermal regime in such a climate.

Types in the construction of roofs

The roof of a house is not only protection from the weather (snow, rain, sun, wind, etc.), but also the appearance of the house. A beautiful roof, like an elegant hat, decorates the house and emphasizes its individuality, is the crown of the architectural structure.

The roof of almost any configuration consists of a supporting structure - roof trusses and lathing - and the actual roof.

The presence of certain elements of the roof is determined by its shape and design features.

The shape of the roof is chosen depending on the purpose of the building and its size.

Outbuildings, garages, sheds are most often covered with a gable roof. For residential and garden houses, gable and mansard roof forms are traditional. They are easy to manufacture and can be covered with any roofing materials. In the southern regions, hip roofs are more often arranged, since they are better able to withstand wind loads.
Roofing materials

Of the roofing materials, slate has the most reliable and durable properties. For low-rise buildings, shingles are the best roofing material, but they require reinforced rafters due to the weight of the shingles.

Roofing steel is used for complex roof configurations. Roll roofs used when covering utility rooms or as a temporary covering in residential buildings... In one-story houses with an average load-bearing wall usually they arrange a roof with inclined rafters, resting one end on the outer wall, and the other on a purlin or a pillar installed above the middle wall. The elements of the rafters are interconnected with rafter brackets, nails.

: 1 - gable; 2 - attic; 3, 4 - hip; 5 - hipped roof; 6 - multi-pliers.

The ends of the rafters are attached to the chopped walls with staples. The rafters are attached to the stone walls as follows: first, a metal ruff is hammered into the wall, not higher than the fourth seam of the masonry, from above. Rafters are attached to the ruff with twists of wire in two loops.

The ends of the rafters of a stone house rest on a beam laid along the entire length of the wall, which distributes the load from the rafters to the wall. In the rafters and the crate at the place where the chimney passes from the stove, a fire gap is arranged, a gap of 13 cm is left between the elements of the rafters, the pipe and the crate.

Roof elements: 1 - slopes; 2 - skate; 3 - inclined rib; 4 - groove; 5 - eaves overhang; 6 - gable overhang; 7 - gutter; eight - downpipe; 9 - chimney.

Construction roof trusses of various shapes have their own characteristics. At the heart of any truss is a triangle, as the most rigid and economical design... It is formed from 2-rafter legs (upper chord of the truss) and tightening (lower chord). The rafter legs are connected with the upper ends to the ridge girder. The lower ends of the rafter ng, as well as the ends of the lower belt, are attached to the outer walls of the house. The structure, consisting only of the upper and lower chords, is only able to withstand a very light roof. For greater reliability, the trusses are equipped with additional internal supports (struts, risers, contractions).

Construction trusses create the necessary roof slope, which depends on a number of factors:

Features of the climate: with a large amount of precipitation, the slope of the roof is 45 ° or more, with the prevailing winds, the slope is much lower, etc.;

Roofing material: when using piece roofing materials, a slope of at least 22 °, for roll materials- 5-25 ° and more, for asbestos-cement sheets and tiles - 25-35 ° and more.

It must be remembered that with an increase in the slope of the roof, the consumption of materials increases, and, accordingly, its cost.

Depending on the method of fastening the truss to the walls of the house, structures with hanging or inclined rafters are distinguished.

Hanging rafters are in the same plane, rigidly interconnected and rest on two extreme supports (outer walls).

: 1 - brace; 2 - single tightening; 3 - overlay board; 4 - lining; 5 - outer wall; 6 - pad.

The lower ends of the rafters are supported by Mauerlats, hewn into two edging. The simplest hanging trusses consist of rafter legs and a puff (lower belt). To protect the rafter legs from deflection when their cross-section is insufficient, a lattice is introduced between them from the rack, struts and the crossbar. This increases the rigidity of the truss structure. The rafter legs are strengthened with staples and tied with wire 4-6 mm thick to the ruffs driven into the wall. This prevents the roof from falling off in strong winds. The lower end of such a twist is fixed to a crutch or a ruff hammered into the seam of the masonry 250-300 mm below the edge of the wall, or to the beam of the attic floor. In wooden log houses, the rafters are fastened with staples to the second crown of the log house.

: 1 - brace; 2 - Mauerlat; 3 - twisting; 4 - outer wall; 5 - inner wall; 6 - cut; 7 - bed; 8 - roofing material.

For installation hanging rafters it is necessary to raise the rafters made in advance, each separately, to the attic floor, and then assemble them using auxiliary braces and sawing from boards for temporary fastening of the truss. The truss nodes of the hanging rafters are assembled with or without a crossbar for spans up to 6 or 8 meters. A single tightening is made from the same boards as the rafters; for a double tightening, boards of smaller thickness are suitable. For crossbar overlays, boards of 25-30 mm are suitable. If the rigidity of the roof is provided by a truss, then to counteract wind loads in the transverse direction, 1-2-diagonal braces (braces) are installed. The braces are made from boards 30-40 mm thick, attached to the base of the rafter leg and to the middle of the adjacent one. It is most convenient to place the braces above the middle wall. In this case, the boards are nailed to the rack and the bed. The section of the rafters depends on the size of the span, the pitch of the rafters and the slope of the roof. The most common rafter pitch is 120 cm.

Inclined rafters are laid obliquely, on supports of different heights. Either the two outer walls or the outer and inner walls serve as supports. When constructing a gable roof, a support wall is required for inclined rafters.

The rafter legs of opposite roof slopes can be in the same plane and are placed on the ridge girder alternately. Rafters are easy to assemble, do not require complex mechanisms during installation. The nodes of the layered rafters are assembled with struts, racks.

If the width of the building is 10 m, one additional support is sufficient, and if it reaches 15 m, then two supports are desirable. The upper ends of the rafter legs are overlapped using corner overlays. The lower ends of the rafters are attached to support bars (Mauerlat) 100x100 mm in size. Mauerlats in most cases are harvested from whole logs, hewn into two edges, but sometimes, in order to save money, they are made from cuttings 0.6-0.7 meters long. In the middle of the truss, a middle post is installed, on which the top of the upper chord of the truss rests.

At the top of the roof truss structure, a girder is laid, which serves as the basis for the future ridge of the roof. The ridge girder is either made of logs with a wide cross-section, or hammered together from two boards with a thickness of 50 mm.

For mansard roofs, trusses of a special design are made. They can also be installed with an internal wall mount (for two-span houses) or without (for one-span houses). A feature of attic trusses is the presence of an interfloor overlap instead of tightening. This is due to the fact that the lower belt serves as the basis for the floor. attic room... Upper and lower belts as well vertical risers and horizontal fights must be paired, made of double bars. For a two-span mansard structure, doubling is not necessary, since it has additional support in the center.

Modern houses with an attic are often made without a broken roof structure, with the wall at an angle to the floor.

: A - hanging truss of a single-span house; B - a truss with struts; B - a truss for a single-span house with a width of more than 8 m; Г - inclined rafter truss; D - roof truss.

For lighting attic floor additional windows are often arranged in the roof slopes. Such windows can be arranged not only for lighting. Often they are made in the form of vents intended for access to the roof and ventilation of the attic.

In order for the roofs of buildings to have an overhang necessary to drain water from the walls, puffs or rafter legs are released beyond the wall line. For wooden buildings, the overhang should be at least 550 mm.

The lathing of the structure is the basis for roofing. Depending on the type of roofing, the lathing can be made of boards, bars or wood.

The lathing directly perceives the load of the roofing material and, in turn, presses on the rafters, and the rafters transfer the weight of the roof to the load-bearing walls.

The lathing can be solid, when the gap between the beams does not exceed 1 cm, or sparse. Solid formwork, as a rule, is arranged from two layers: the first - discharged and the second - solid from boards laid at an angle of 45 ° in relation to the boards of the lower layer.

A solid crate is arranged under soft roof, flat asbestos-cement and asbestos-free slate, metal tiles and soft shingles... The sparse sheathing is quite suitable for steel roofs, roofs made of clay or cement-sand tiles, as well as for roofs made of corrugated asbestos-cement sheets.

The lathing beams are nailed to the rafters with nails, the length of which is equal to the thickness of the two beams. At the joints and intersections of the slopes (on the ridge, edges, valleys, gutters), as well as along the eaves overhangs, a continuous crate is always made.

Usually the supporting structure is made of softwood.

In brick and block houses, the rafters and lathing can be made of reinforced concrete or metal.

The optimal size of the lathing for most roofing coverings are 50x50 mm (60x60 mm) bars or 70 mm diameter poles. Average distance between rafter legs is about 1 m. On roofs with a slope of more than 45 °, this distance increases to 1.2-1.4 m and on the roofs of houses located in snowy regions, decreases to 0.8-0.6 meters.

Distances between the rafters of the supporting structure (m)

Currently, to facilitate private construction, the industry produces ready-made truss structures, which can only be assembled, laid on the outer walls and lathing on top of them. Bearing structures are made of wood, reinforced concrete or metal. All structures are prefabricated. They are delivered to the place construction works disassembled and folded in place. The foldable structure can be made up of several items packed together. Some structures are quite cumbersome even when disassembled, since they are divided into three large parts: for the eaves and the ridge. Others are completed from smaller planes. The most convenient to use are hinged structures equipped with hinges either in the ridge run or along the eaves. The hinges allow the supporting structure to be folded and unfolded without any problems.

Forms ready roof structures reflect almost all existing roof configurations.

The lathing beams are attached to the finished trusses in the way that is provided for by the structure itself. The purlins are simply nailed to the rafters made of wood. As for reinforced concrete trusses, they can have either holes for nails, or outlets with a diameter of up to 6 mm, which clasp and firmly hold the battens of the sheathing, or spikes, on which the battens are pricked.

Often the base under roofing materials requires additional alignment. So, reinforced concrete slabs, as well as the base on which a semi-rigid or loose insulation is laid, are leveled with cement-sand mortar or asphalt concrete screeds.

: 1 - gable farm; 2 - a truss with a complex shape of the upper belt; 3 - scissor farm; 4 - vaulted farm; 5 - attic farm.

Leveling with sandy asphalt concrete is permissible only on roofs with a slope of no more than 20%.

screeds are performed in the following order: with a slope of up to 15% - first at the junctions and gutters (valleys), and then - on the slopes; with a slope of more than 15%, work on leveling the base is carried out in the reverse order.

Leveling screeds are not arranged as a continuous line on the entire surface of the base, but in areas measuring 6x6 m (for cement-sand mortar) or 4x4 m (for asphalt concrete). Between these sections, temperature-shrinkage joints are made 5 mm wide or 1 cm wide with the laying of rails in them. On the lice, strips of roofing material 150 mm wide are laid with spot gluing them on one side of the seam.

The thickness of the asphalt concrete screed depends on the base material: if the base is made of concrete or rigid heat-insulating plates, the screed thickness should be 15-20 mm, and if it is made of non-rigid insulation, then 20-30 mm. An asphalt concrete screed is arranged only on slopes.

After the installation of the leveling screed, the base must be immediately primed, which will ensure a more durable adhesion of roll and waterproofing materials. Prior to this, all the irregularities of the base are sealed with cement mortar. The screeds are primed in strips 4-5 m wide.

The quality of the foundation device is checked according to the following indicators:

Evenness;

Strength and rigidity (the base should not fall through and sag underfoot);

Smoothness and roundness of joints and grooves (for more durable gluing of roll materials).

The strip foundation is almost universal. It is also used in the construction of small wooden buildings and in the construction of large brick houses. Perfect for all types of soil. It is necessary to lay a strip foundation at least 50-70 cm or 20 cm below the freezing depth.

Let us consider in more detail the device of strip foundations. First, the bottom of the hole dug under the foundation is covered with sand (15-20 cm). Then it is poured with water and tamped. Then crushed stone or gravel is laid with a layer of 10 cm and poured with cement. Then this procedure is repeated layer by layer. Above the ground, the concrete is placed in the formwork to the required level. 3 hours after the completion of the installation, the entire surface is covered with burlap. With this scheme of pouring the strip foundation, concrete is saved up to 50 percent.

In order for the strip foundation to be strong, it is necessary to use cement of the highest grades. Also, in order to achieve the best quality when preparing concrete, it is necessary to use clean water, preferably from a well.

Slab foundations are quite popular and common. Due to the rigid construction - monolithic slab, made under the entire area of ​​the building, they are not afraid of any movement of the soil: the slab moves with it, protecting it from destruction of the structure of the house. Therefore, this kind of foundations are also called floating.
The solid slab of floating foundations is made of reinforced concrete and has rigid reinforcement throughout the entire load-bearing plane. This further increases their resistance to loads arising from freezing, thawing and soil subsidence.

Solid (slab) foundations are used in following cases:
with soft soils at the construction site or with significant loads from the building;
with destroyed, eroded or filled soils of the base;
with uneven soil compressibility;
if necessary, protection against high level groundwater.

The device of slab foundations requires a relatively large consumption of concrete and metal and can be justified in low-rise construction when constructing small and simple-plan buildings and structures on heavy heaving, moving and subsiding soils, as well as in cases where a high basement and top are not required slab foundation can be used as a basement floor.

Slab foundations are designed in the form of flat and ribbed slabs or in the form of cross ribbons. For buildings with heavy loads, as well as in the case of using underground space, box foundations are used.
Slab foundations are designed for buildings mainly with a frame structural system. To increase the rigidity of the slab, ribs are arranged in cross directions, which can be performed both with ribs up and down in relation to

At the intersections of the edges of the foundation slab, columns are installed with a frame structural system, and with wall edges they are used as walls of the basement part of the building, on which the supporting structures of its ground part are installed.
Box-shaped foundations are used in the construction of high-rise buildings with heavy loads. The ribs of such a slab are made to the full height of the underground part of the building and are rigidly connected to the ceilings, thus forming closed various configurations section.

The columnar foundation, as is already clear from its name, is a set of individual pillars dug into the ground. First of all, such pillars are located at the intersection of the walls of the house, and at the same time they can be located in the spans between them. The upper end of the pillars is called the head, the lower end is called the base. A house will subsequently be placed on the heads, so they should be at the same level for all pillars - this will be the floor level of the first floor, usually at a height of 40-50 cm from the ground. Such a gap between the floor of the house and the ground is necessary to avoid dampness, from which wooden structures the lower part of the house (namely, wooden houses are most often erected on columnar foundations) will quickly rot.

The shape of the pillars of the foundation can be different - square, rectangular, round, but the most common pillars with a round cross-section, because under such pillars of the well can be drilled with a hand drill. The diameter of the pillars can be very different from 15 cm or more, but when building a columnar foundation with your own hands, you will have to choose from the following diameters: 150 mm, 200 mm, 250 mm, 400 mm. Wells of this diameter can be drilled with most handheld drills commercially. The depth of the columnar foundation is usually about 2 m (below the freezing depth). The base area of ​​the columnar foundation is small, therefore, in order to withstand the load from the house, it must rest on a layer of soil with a high bearing capacity.

Foundation posts can be made from different material: wood, brick, monolithic concrete. Wooden beams or the log can be burned or treated with an antiseptic to prevent (or at least slow down) wood decay. You can also use waterproofing materials, but still such pillars will be the least reliable option.

Brickwork - quite acceptable option in terms of strength, however, this option is far from ideal in terms of ease of construction. It is not possible to fold a pillar of bricks directly in the well itself. Folding a pole completely on the surface of the earth and then lowering it into a well does not seem like a quick and pleasant experience either.

Monolithic reinforced concrete is definitely the best material in all respects. They provide the greatest compressive strength, with reinforcement - and tensile strength. The reinforced monolithic pillar will not crack under any action of the forces of frost heaving. To dilute the concrete mixture and pour it into the dug well, the action is quite simple.

The foundation posts can be of constant or variable cross-section. In the first case, it is a simple cylinder or parallelepiped, in the second, more complex form with widening at the bottom of the column. Such widening allows you to increase the base area and, accordingly, increase the bearing capacity of the foundation: the weight of the house will be distributed over a larger area. The second advantage is great resistance to frost heaving of the soil. If the pillar expands at the bottom, then the heaving forces will not be able to squeeze it up.

28.02.13

To begin with, the walls are the main structural part of the building and are vertical fences that separate the room from the outside environment or from another room. Depending on the perception of loads, walls are subdivided into load-bearing, self-supporting and non-bearing. The load-bearing wall of the house is designed to take on the load coming from other structural parts of the building - floors and roofs, and transfer it along with its own weight to the foundation. Self-supporting walls carry only their own weight, while relying on the foundation of the structure, and non-bearing walls are partitions that carry their weight, but at the same time they can rely on a variety of structural elements.

V modern construction there are two types of load-bearing walls: internal and external. Internal load-bearing walls are thinner than external ones. In addition, the foundation for the internal load-bearing walls is also made smaller.

The main function of the internal walls is to hold the load from the structure, as well as the internal mass (furniture, people, equipment) and the load from external influence(wind, snow). At the same time, the internal walls also connect the load-bearing external walls. Due to the specifics of their location, load-bearing internal walls do not participate in the heat transfer process. External walls or facade, are business card at home. Their main function is to isolate the building from external factors: cold, wind and precipitation. Facades can have openings in load-bearing walls in the form of windows and doors. In this case, openings for windows are made separately for each floor in one row. The part of the wall between the openings in this case is called a pillar. In the inner walls, there is no opening in the load-bearing wall for windows; there can only be a doorway in the load-bearing wall. In addition, there are load-bearing walls that do not have any openings. They are called deaf.

Load-bearing walls as part of the frame

It should be noted that the load-bearing walls are part of the load-bearing frame, which is a single system structural elements: walls, columns, foundations, beams and floors of the house. This system provides strength, rigidity and stability to the structure. The strength of the supporting frame is its ability to resist the effects of various loads acting on it, without collapsing and without receiving critical deflections and deformations. The stiffness of the skeleton is the ability not to change shape under the influence of such loads, and stability is the resistance to overturning or shear. Each structure of the skeleton performs its own separate function, sometimes not even one, but they are all interconnected and work as a single "skeleton" of the house.

Depending on various factors, apply different kinds skeleton. It is necessary to take into account the purpose of the premises and the house as a whole. That is, if it is supposed to build a house with a free layout, it is better to use a frame skeleton. For a standard cottage with pre-designed rooms, a frameless frame with wall delimitation is more suitable. In addition, you need to take into account and architectural features future building. So, a house in the "high-tech" style is better and easier to make in a frame bearing frame, and in the "Russian style" - in a frameless one. The choice of this or that type of skeleton also affects the economic aspect. Therefore, when designing, you need to calculate the cost and construction time from different kinds skeleton. Also, the choice depends on what materials are planned to be used in construction. For example, if a house is designed with a frameless load-bearing frame, then it is impossible to build walls from a foam block without additional structural solutions (monolithic belts, reinforced meshes).

The most common type of load-bearing frame in cottage construction is frameless. Frame and combined are also used. But we will focus on frameless, since when using it, it is the load-bearing walls that perform the main function.

This type of skeleton is considered the easiest to build private houses. V this case the supporting frame is formed from massive longitudinal and transverse walls connected to the foundation, ceilings (beamed or slab) laid on the walls, stairs (they stiffen the frame vertically and horizontally). We can say that in this version, the supporting frame will be presented in the form of a rigid and stable box, consisting of interconnected walls and ceilings. The lower part of the walls is usually more massive than the walls of the upper floors, due to the fact that it must bear the weight of the overlying floors and walls. For example, the basement of a cottage can be made of ceramic bricks 510 mm thick, and the second floor can have thinner walls - 380 mm. Thus, the walls should play the role of a supporting structure and a heat-insulating, enclosing one.

When using a frameless frame, the walls can be made of bricks, reinforced concrete blocks, lightweight concrete blocks, stone, wood, and so on. The thickness of the bearing walls, depending on the material, can be from 250 mm to 700 mm. The thickness of curtain walls and partitions is from 100 mm. Floor slabs are usually made prefabricated or monolithic, with a thickness of 150 mm.

The frameless load-bearing frame can be of three types: with longitudinal load-bearing walls, transverse, or with both at the same time.

In the first case, the base of the frame is the load-bearing walls, which are located along the long side of the house, the floors are laid across the house, that is, perpendicular to the walls. The stability and rigidity of such buildings is ensured by flights of stairs, end and transverse walls, the ceilings play the role of a rigid horizontal diaphragm. The spacing of the longitudinal walls in such houses is usually equal to the length of the floor slab (4.2 m; 5.4 m; 6 m). This type of frame is used in houses with an elongated shape.

When using transverse load-bearing walls, they are located along the smaller side of the house, and the floors are laid on them. Walls along the long side of the house can be made non-bearing or self-supporting, but they must be thermally insulating. A skeleton with transverse load-bearing walls has, in comparison with a load-bearing skeleton with longitudinal load-bearing walls, greater transverse rigidity and stability. The disadvantage of such a system is that it is impossible to vary the width of the living quarters, which will finally be limited by the transverse load-bearing walls.

In construction with both longitudinal and transverse load-bearing walls, the frame is a combination of these load-bearing walls. In this case, the overlaps are laid in both the longitudinal and transverse directions. Such schemes are applicable for cottages in which the architectural form is difficult to solve using only longitudinal or only transverse load-bearing walls. That is, when the cottage has an unusual shape in plan and it is difficult to solve the space exclusively with longitudinal or transverse walls. The rigidity and stability of the supporting frame in such houses is ensured by the interconnection of walls and floors, stair flights made of monolithic reinforced concrete or metal and rigidly connected with load-bearing elements skeleton.

Types of walls by type of material

As mentioned above, walls can be made of various materials. In this case, the choice wall material depends on the financial capabilities of the customer and on the building design. Let's consider them in more detail.

Wood

Wood is a traditional material for the walls of low-rise buildings; houses are not built from this material above two floors. The most comfortable in terms of sanitary and hygienic requirements are cobbled and chopped walls made of coniferous wood. As their disadvantages, it is worth noting sedimentary deformation in the first 1.5–2 years and low fire resistance.

Frame walls are justified in the presence of lumber and effective insulation. At the same time, frame walls do not require massive foundations, and, unlike chopped ones, do not give post-construction deformations. The fire resistance and solidity of frame walls can be increased if they are lined with bricks. In order for wooden walls to serve for a long time, it is necessary to take care of the quality of the material. Its level can be determined by blowing the butt of an ax - a clear and clear sound indicates good quality... By design, wooden walls of heated buildings are divided into chopped from logs or beams, frame, panel board and frame-panel board.

Chopped log walls are a structure of logs stacked on top of each other in horizontal rows and connected at the corners by cuts. Such walls are distinguished by high strength and good heat-shielding qualities, as well as durability under favorable operating conditions. The disadvantage is the fact that log processing and walling is a laborious process that requires a lot of wood consumption.

Cobblestone walls are erected from horizontally laid beams. Their use excludes manual processing of logs, cutting of mates of corners, abutments of walls and makes it possible to switch to mechanized procurement of wall elements. It is possible to effectively protect the cobbled walls from atmospheric influences using planking or brick cladding. This will protect the walls from moisture, increase heat protection, and reduce the effect of wind. In addition, fire resistance increases with brick cladding.

It is recommended that log and cobbled walls be sheathed or veneered no earlier than 1–1.5 years after construction, after they have completely settled. Frame walls require less wood than log or block walls, are less labor intensive and therefore more economical. The basis of the frame walls is a load-bearing wooden frame, sheathed on both sides with sheet or molded materials. Frame walls, due to their lightness, are practically not subject to shrinkage and this allows them to be sheathed or veneered immediately after construction. Frame walls must be protected from atmospheric moisture by performing outer cladding with overlapping vertical and horizontal joints and arranging drains from protruding wall elements. Protection from water vapor is provided by arranging a vapor barrier made of synthetic film, glassine or using other types of vapor barrier, laying them between the inner lining and insulation.

In addition to the frame walls, shield walls are distinguished. Their difference lies in the fact that their main structural parts consist of enlarged elements of shields, as a rule, manufactured at the plant. The process of erecting panel houses is reduced to installation at the construction site and finishing works... This reduces the labor intensity of the work. In panel board houses, the basis of the walls is the lower strapping made of antiseptic wooden beams, laid along the basement of the building and attached to it with the help of anchor bolts... Wall shields are installed on the harness. From above, the wall panels are fastened with the upper strapping laid on them, on which the attic floor rests. Wall panels are made internal and external, which, in turn, are subdivided into blind, window and door. The height of the boards is equal to the height of the floor. The shields consist of a cobbled strapping and sheathing, internal and external, between which a heater is placed. When arranging the basement and cornice units, it is necessary to take measures to protect them from freezing by arranging an insulated base and an insulated frieze belt at the cornice, as well as from humidifying the internal air with vaporous moisture, arranging for this purpose a vapor barrier. Under the basement, the underground is not made insulated. The underground must be cold and well-ventilated, and the structure of the floor over the underground and especially the basement unit must have reliable insulation and vapor barrier, laid on top under the structure of the clean floor. To protect against freezing at the level of the overlap, an insulated belt is arranged outside.

Stone

By design and method of construction, stone walls are subdivided into masonry (from small or large stones), monolithic and large-panel. Masonry is a structure that is made of separate stones, the seams between which are filled with mortars.

For the structure to work properly, a wall of individual stones must meet stringent requirements. First, the stones in the wall should be arranged in horizontal rows, that is, perpendicular to the main acting forces. Secondly, the stones in the rows should be separated by vertical seams - longitudinal and transverse. Vertical seams in rows adjacent in height must not match. This arrangement of stones is called suture dressing. This ensures that the stones work together in the wall and that the load is evenly distributed. The transverse dressing at the level of one row is arranged with stones laid with the long side across the wall (with pokes), and the longitudinal dressing with stones laid along the wall (with spoons), in some types of masonry - and with pokes. Lime or complex mortars (cement-lime) are used for grouting, and cement mortars are used for basement and basement walls. Masonry is made of small or large stones. Of small stones - mainly hand-made masonry, of large ones - industrial masonry using various mechanisms, primarily cranes. Today, monolithic concrete walls are gaining popularity. The concrete is laid in the mold formed by the formwork. This method is very industrial, which is determined by the types of formwork (sliding, movable, mobile, etc.).

Large-panel walls are called walls mounted from large-size prefabricated slabs-panels. This type of wall is the most progressive.

Brick

Finally, consider one of the most common materials in construction - brick. Brick walls are made of clay (red) or silicate bricks. A multi-hole clay brick is widely used, the thickness of which is 138 mm and the mass of one stone is 4 kg. Silicate brick is more economical than clay brick, since all the processes of its manufacture are mechanized. In dry conditions, silicate bricks are used for building walls along with ordinary clay bricks. It is not recommended to use silicate bricks for laying the basement and underground parts of buildings, since in groundwater containing carbon dioxide, silicate brick is short-lived.

According to their constructive relationship, brick walls are divided into solid (homogeneous) and lightweight (layered). The former are made of solid, hollow or lightweight (porous) bricks. Lightweight include in thickness, in addition to brick, layers of other, less heat-conducting materials. Solid walls made of solid clay or silicate bricks have great strength, but at the same time high thermal conductivity, that is, low heat-shielding qualities. That is why the thickness of such walls is assigned according to the heat engineering calculation, but in this case they have excessive strength. Solid masonry is advisable for the arrangement of the basement and first floor of buildings, and lightweight masonry should be used for the upper floors of multi-storey buildings.

In modern mass construction, two brick masonry systems are used: chain and multi-row. In the first case, each spoon row of masonry alternates with one butt row. This type of masonry is often called double-row. With a multi-row (spoon) dressing, several spoon rows are overlapped with one butt. Such masonry is six-row (made of ordinary bricks) and five-row (made of effective bricks).

Important to remember

Erection of walls is an important stage in construction work, since walls perform important functions of protection from the adverse effects of the external environment and thermal insulation of a building, and also determine its appearance. It is necessary to correctly take into account the purpose of the premises and, in this regard, design the building, choosing the materials correctly. And last but not least, when moving on to the construction of walls, remember to comply with fire resistance and fire safety standards, so that the house becomes really strong, warm and durable.