Abasia- Loss of the ability to walk, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Abbreviation- Loss by a species in the course of evolution or by an individual in the process of ontogeny of traits or phases of development that were present in ancestors.

Abiogenesis- The emergence of living from non-living in the process of evolution.

Aboriginal- An indigenous inhabitant of any locality, living in it from time immemorial.

Avitaminosis- Disease caused by a long-term lack of essential vitamins in food.

Autogamy- Self-pollination and self-fertilization in flowering plants.

Auto-duplication- The process of synthesis by living organisms or their parts of substances and structures that are completely identical to the original formations.

Autolysis- Self-dissolution, decay of body tissues under the influence of enzymes contained in the same tissues.

Automixis- Fusion of germ cells belonging to the same individual; widespread among protozoa, fungi, diatoms.

Autotomy- The ability of some animals to discard parts of their body; protective device.

Autotroph- An organism that synthesizes organic matter from inorganic compounds using the energy of the Sun or the energy released during chemical reactions.

Agglutination- 1) Bonding and precipitation from a homogeneous suspension of bacteria, erythrocytes and other cells. 2) Coagulation of protein in a living cell, which occurs when exposed to high temperatures, toxic substances and other similar agents.

Agglutinins- Substances formed in the blood serum, under the influence of which the coagulation of proteins, adhesion of microbes, blood cells occurs.

Agony- The end point of life, preceding clinical death.

Agranulocyte- Leukocyte, which does not contain grains (granules) in the cytoplasm; in vertebrates, these are lymphocytes and monocytes.

Agrocenosis- Biotic community of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms, created to obtain agricultural products and regularly maintained by humans.

Adaptation- A complex of morphophysiological and behavioral characteristics of an individual, population or species, ensuring success in competition with other species, populations and individuals, and resistance to the effects of factors of the abiotic environment.

Adinamia - Muscle weakness, impotence.

Azotobacteria- A group of aerobic bacteria capable of fixing nitrogen from the air and thereby enriching the soil with it.

Acclimatization- A set of measures for the introduction of a species into new habitats, carried out in order to enrich natural or artificial communities with organisms useful to humans.

Accommodation- Adaptation to something. 1) Accommodation of the eye - adaptation to viewing objects at different distances. 2) Physiological accommodation - the adaptation of muscle and nervous tissue to the action of a stimulus that slowly grows in strength.

Accumulation- Accumulation in organisms chemical substances in the environment in lesser concentration.

Acromegaly- Excessive, disproportionate growth of the limbs and bones of the face due to dysfunction of the pituitary gland.

Alkalosis- Increased content of alkalis in the blood and other tissues of the body.

Allele- Different forms of the same gene located at the same loci of homologous chromosomes.

Allogenesis

Albinism- Congenital absence of pigmentation normal for this type of organisms.

Algology- The scientific branch of botany that studies algae.

Amensalism- Suppression of one organism by another without a reverse negative effect on the part of the suppressed one.

Amitosis- Direct cell division.

Anabiosis- A temporary state of the organism, in which life processes are so slowed down that all visible manifestations of life are almost completely absent.

Anabolism- Plastic exchange.

Analyzing cross- Crossing the test organism with another, which is a recessive homozygote for this trait, which makes it possible to establish the genotype of the test subject.

Similar bodies- Organs performing the same functions, but having a different structure and origin, the result convergence.

Anatomy- A group of scientific industries researching form and structure individual bodies, their systems and the whole organism as a whole.

Anaerobe- An organism capable of living in an oxygen-free environment.

Angiology- Section of anatomy that studies the circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Anemia- A group of diseases characterized by a decrease in the number of erythrocytes, the content of hemoglobin or total blood mass.

Aneuploidy- A multiple change in the number of chromosomes; an altered set of chromosomes, in which one or more chromosomes from the usual set are either absent or are represented by additional copies.

Antheridium- The male organ of sexual reproduction.

Antigen- A complex organic substance that, when it enters the body of animals and humans, can cause a response immune reaction - formation antibodies.

Anticodon- A region of the t-RNA molecule, consisting of 3 nucleotides, which specifically binds to the m-RNA codon.

Antibody- Immunoglobulin of blood plasma of humans and warm-blooded animals, synthesized by cells of lymphoid tissue under the influence of various antigens.

Anthropogenesis- The process of human origin.

Anthropology- An interdisciplinary discipline that explores the origin and evolution of man as a special sociobiological species.

Apomixis- Formation of an embryo from an unfertilized female reproductive cell or from cells of an outgrowth or embryo sac; asexual reproduction.

Arachnology- A section of zoology that studies arachnids.

Area- The area of ​​distribution of the species.

Arogenesis

Aromorphosis- Evolutionary direction, accompanied by the acquisition of major structural changes; complication of organization, raising to a higher level, morphophysiological progress.

Arrhenotokia- Parthenogenetic birth of offspring consisting exclusively of males, for example, the development of drones from unfertilized eggs laid by a queen bee.

Archegonium- The female reproductive organ in mosses, ferns, horsetails, lymphoids, some gymnosperms, algae and fungi, containing an ovum.

Assimilation- One of the sides of metabolism, the consumption and transformation of substances entering the body or the deposition of reserves, due to which there is an accumulation of energy.

Astasia- Loss of the ability to stand, usually as a result of a disease of the nervous system.

Astrobiology- The scientific industry dedicated to the detection and study of signs of life in the Universe, in space and on planets.

Asphyxia- Cessation of breathing, choking, oxygen starvation. It occurs when there is a lack of aeration, including when plants get wet.

Atavism- The appearance in some individuals of this type of traits that existed in distant ancestors, but then lost in the process of evolution.

Atony- Intravital decrease in the size of organs and tissues, replacement of their functioning cells with connective tissue, fat, etc. Is accompanied by a violation or even termination of their functions.

Outbreeding- Crossbreeding of individuals of the same species, which are not directly related, leads to the phenomenon of heterosis.

Autosome- Any non-sex chromosome; a person has 22 pairs of autosomes.

Acidosis- Accumulation of negatively charged ions (anions) of acids in the blood and other tissues of the body.

Aerobe- An organism that can live only in an environment containing free molecular oxygen.

Aeroponics- Growing plants without soil in humid air by periodically spraying the roots with nutrient solutions. It is used in greenhouses, greenhouses, on spaceships, etc.

Aerotaxis- The movement of unicellular and some multicellular lower organisms to the oxygen source or, conversely, from it.

Aerotropism- Growth of stems or roots of plants in the direction from which oxygen-enriched air is supplied, for example, growth of roots in mangroves towards the soil surface.

Bacteriology- A branch of microbiology that studies bacteria.

Carrier bacteria

Bacteriophage- A bacterial virus capable of infecting a bacterial cell, multiplying in it and causing it to dissolve.

Bactericide- An antibacterial substance (proteins) produced by bacteria of a certain type and suppressing the vital activity of bacteria of other types.

Baroreceptors- Sensitive nerve endings in the walls of blood vessels that perceive changes in blood pressure and reflexively regulate its level.

Bacillus- Any bacterium in the form of a rod.

Bivalent- Two homologous chromosomes formed during the division of the cell nucleus.

Bilaterality- Bilateral symmetry in organisms.

Biogeography- The scientific branch that studies the general geographic laws of the organic world of the Earth: the distribution of vegetation cover and animal population of different parts of the globe, their combination, the floristic and faunistic division of land and ocean, as well as the distribution of biocenoses and their constituent species of plants, animals, fungi and microorganisms ...

Biogeochemistry- Scientific discipline investigating the role of living organisms in the destruction of rocks and minerals, circulation, migration, distribution and concentration chemical elements in the biosphere.

Biogeocenosis- Evolutionarily developed, spatially limited, long-term self-sustaining homogeneous natural system, in which living organisms and their surrounding abiotic environment are functionally interconnected, characterized by a relatively independent metabolism and a special type of use of the energy flow coming from the Sun.

Biology- A complex of knowledge about life and a set of scientific disciplines that study wildlife.

Biometrics- A set of techniques for planning and processing biological research data by methods of mathematical statistics.

Biomechanics- A section of biophysics that studies the mechanical properties of living tissues, organs and the body as a whole, as well as the mechanical processes occurring in them.

Bionics- One of the areas of cybernetics, which studies the structure and vital activity of organisms in order to use the revealed patterns in solving engineering problems and constructing technical systems, similar in characteristics to living organisms and their parts.

Biorhythm- Rhythmic-cyclical fluctuations in the intensity and nature of biological processes and phenomena, giving organisms the ability to adapt to changes in the environment.

Biosphere- The shell of the Earth, inhabited by living organisms.

Biotechnology- A section of hunting management, exploring ways to increase the biological productivity and economic productivity of hunting grounds.

Biotechnology- The borderline between biology and technology is a scientific discipline and a sphere of practice that studies the ways and methods of changing the natural environment around a person in accordance with his needs.

Biophysics- A scientific discipline that studies the physical and physicochemical processes in living organisms, as well as the physical structure of biological systems at all levels of their organization - from molecular and subcellular to cells, organ and organism as a whole.

Biochemistry- A scientific discipline that studies the chemical composition of living things, chemical reactions in them and the regular order of these reactions, which ensures metabolism.

Biocenosis- An interconnected set of microorganisms, plants, fungi and animals inhabiting a more or less homogeneous area of ​​land or water.

Bifurcation- Splitting something into two branches.

Blastula- Single layer embryo.

Botany- A complex of scientific disciplines exploring the kingdom of plants.

Bryology- The scientific industry researching mosses.

Vaccine- A preparation made from living or dead microorganisms used to immunize humans and animals for prophylactic or therapeutic purposes.

Virology- A scientific discipline that studies viruses.

Carriage of viruses- Stay and reproduction of pathogens of infectious or invasive diseases in humans and animals in the absence of signs of the disease.

Gamete- Sexual, or reproductive, cell with a haploid set of chromosomes.

Gametogenesis- The process of formation and development of sex cells - gametes.

Gametophyte- Representative of the sexual generation or stage of the plant life cycle from spore to zygote.

Haploid- A cell or individual with a single set of unpaired chromosomes resulting from reduction division.

Gastrula- The phase of embryonic development of multicellular animals, two-layer embryo.

Gastrulation- The process of gastrula formation.

Heliobiology- A section of biophysics that studies the effect of solar activity on terrestrial organisms and their communities.

Hemizygote- A diploid organism that has only one allele of a given gene or one chromosome segment instead of the usual two. For organisms that have a heterogametic male sex (as in humans and all other mammals), almost all genes associated with the X chromosome are hemizygous, since males normally have only one X chromosome. The hemizygous state of alleles or chromosomes is used in genetic analysis to find the location of the genes responsible for any trait.

Hemolysis- Destruction of red blood cells with the release of hemoglobin into the environment.

Hemophilia- Hereditary disease characterized by increased bleeding, which is explained by a lack of blood clotting factors.

Hemocyanin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of some invertebrates, which provides oxygen transport in their body, is a copper-containing protein that gives the blood a blue color.

Hemerythrin- The respiratory pigment of the hemolymph of a number of invertebrates is an iron-containing protein that gives the blood a pink hue.

Genetics- A discipline that studies the mechanisms and patterns of heredity and variability of organisms, methods of managing these processes.

Genome- The set of genes contained in a haploid (single) set of chromosomes.

Genotype- The set of all genes obtained from parents.

Gene pool- The set of genes of a group of individuals of a population, a group of populations or a species, within which they are characterized by a certain frequency of occurrence.

Geobotany- The scientific branch that studies plant communities, their composition, development, classification, dependence on the environment and the impact on it, especially the finocenotic environment.

Geotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of gravity.

Geotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of the force of gravity.

Geophilia- The ability of shoots or roots of some perennial plants to be drawn into or embedded in the soil for overwintering.

Hermaphroditism- The presence of the reproductive systems of the male and female type in one animal.

Herpetology- A section of zoology that studies amphibians and reptiles.

Heterozygote- An individual giving different types of gametes.

Heterosis- "hybrid vigor", acceleration of growth, increase in size, increased viability and fertility of the first generation hybrids in comparison with the parental forms of plants or animals.

Heteroploidy- A multiple change in the number of chromosomes.

Gibberellin- Substance that stimulates plant growth.

Hybrid- An organism obtained as a result of crossing.

Gigantism- The phenomenon of abnormal growth of a person, animal, plant, exceeding the norm characteristic of the species.

Hygiene- A science that studies the impact of living and working conditions on human health and develops measures to prevent diseases.

Hygrophiles- Terrestrial animals adapted to living in high humidity conditions.

Hygrophytes- Terrestrial plants, adapted to living in conditions of excessive moisture.

Gigrophobes- Terrestrial animals that avoid excess moisture in specific habitats.

Hydrolysis- The third stage of energy metabolism, cellular respiration.

Hydroponics- Growing plants without soil on aqueous solutions mineral substances.

Hydrotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of moisture.

Hypertension- Disease caused by high blood pressure.

Hypodynamia- Lack of physical activity.

Hypoxia- Decreased oxygen content in the tissues of the body, observed with a lack of oxygen in the air, some diseases and poisoning.

Hypotension- Disease caused by a decrease in blood pressure.

Histology- Section of morphology, studying the tissues of multicellular organisms.

Glycolysis- Anoxic process of digestion of carbohydrates.

Hollandric sign- A symptom found only in men (XY).

Homozygote- An individual producing one variety of gametes.

Homeotherm- An animal with a constant body temperature, practically independent of the ambient temperature (warm-blooded animal).

Homologous organs- Organs that are similar in structure, origin, but perform different functions, the result divergences.

Hormone- A biologically active substance produced in the body by specialized cells or organs and has a targeted effect on the activity of other organs and tissues.

Granulocyte- Leukocyte, which contains grain (granules) in the cytoplasm, protects the body from bacteria.

Color blindness- Hereditary inability to distinguish some colors, more often red and green.

Degeneration

Deletion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which a section of the chromosome is lost in its middle part; gene mutation, as a result of which a section of the DNA molecule is dropped.

Demecology- A section of ecology that studies the relationship of populations with their environment.

Dendrology- A branch of botany that explores woody and shrub plants.

Depression- A decrease in the number of individuals in a population, a species or a group of species, caused by intrapopulation, biocenotic or abiotic reasons associated with human activities; depressed, painful condition individuals; general decrease in vitality.

Defensive- Chromosomal mutation, which results in the loss of the ends of the chromosomes (lack).

Divergence- Discrepancy of signs.

Dihybrid crossing- Crossing of individuals for two pairs of signs.

Dissimilation

Dominant feature- The predominant feature.

Donor- A person who donates blood for transfusion or organs for transplantation.

Gene drift- Changes in the genetic structure of the population as a result of any random causes; genetic-automatic process in a population.

Splitting up- The process of division of the zygote without the growth of blastomeres.

Duplication- Chromosomal mutation, in which any part of the chromosome is repeated.

Eugenics- Teaching about hereditary human health and ways to preserve and improve it. The basic principles of the teaching were formulated in 1869 by the English anthropologist and psychologist F. Galton. F. Galton proposed to study the factors that improve the hereditary qualities of future generations (genetic prerequisites for mental and physiological health, mental abilities, giftedness). But some ideas of eugenics have been perverted and used to justify racism, genocide; the presence of social inequality, mental and physiological inequality of people. In modern science, the problems of eugenics are considered within the framework of human genetics and ecology, especially the fight against hereditary diseases.

Sanctuary- A section of a territory or water area within which certain forms of human economic activity are permanently or temporarily prohibited to ensure the protection of certain types of living beings.

Reserve- Specially protected area, completely excluded from any economic activity in order to preserve intact natural complexes, protect species of life and monitor natural processes.

Zygote- Fertilized egg.

Zoogeography- The scientific branch that studies the patterns of the geographical distribution of animals and their communities on the globe.

Zoology- A scientific discipline that studies the animal world.

Idioadaptation- The path of evolution without increasing the general level of organization, the emergence of adaptations to specific environmental conditions.

Insulation- A process that prevents the crossing of individuals of different species and leads to a discrepancy in traits within one species.

Immunity- Immunity, body resistance to infectious agents and foreign substances. Distinguish between natural (innate) or artificial (acquired), active or passive immunity.

Imprinting- Firm and fast fixation in the memory of the animal of the signs of any object.

Inbreeding- Closely related crossing.

Inversion- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is a rotation of its site by 180 °.

Insertion- Gene mutation, as a result of which a piece of DNA molecule is inserted into the structure of a gene.

Interferon- A protective protein produced by the cells of mammals and birds in response to their infection with viruses.

Intoxication- Poisoning of the body.

Ichthyology- A section of zoology that studies fish.

Carcinogen- Substance or physical agent capable of causing development malignant neoplasms or contributing to their occurrence.

Karyotype- A diploid set of chromosomes in somatic (non-sex) cells of the body, a typical set of their characteristics for a species: a certain number, size, shape and structural features, constant for each species.

Carotenoids- Pigments red, yellow and orange found in plant and some animal tissues.

Catabolism- Energy metabolism, decomposition of substances, synthesis of ATP.

Catagenesis- The path of evolution associated with the transition to a simpler habitat and leading to a simplification of the structure and way of life, morphophysiological regression, the disappearance of the organs of active life.

Lodging- Close cohabitation (coexistence) of organisms different types, in which one of the organisms benefits for itself (uses the organism as an "apartment") without harming the other.

Kyphosis- The curvature of the spine, facing the bulge back.

Clone- Genetically homogeneous offspring of one cell.

Commensalism- Permanent or temporary cohabitation of individuals of different species, in which one of the partners derives one-sided benefit from the other, without causing harm to the owner.

Complementarity- Spatial complementarity of molecules or their parts, leading to the formation of hydrogen bonds.

Convergence- Convergence of signs.

Competition- Rivalry, any antagonistic relationship determined by the desire to better and more quickly achieve a goal in comparison with other members of the community.

Consumation- Organism-consumer of ready-made organic substances.

Conjugation- Rapprochement of chromosomes during meiosis; the sexual process, which consists in a partial exchange of hereditary information, for example, in ciliates.

Copulation- The process of fusion of sex cells (gametes) into a zygote; the connection of individuals of the opposite sex during intercourse.

Crossbreeding- Interbreeding of domestic animals.

Crossover- Exchange of sections of homologous chromosomes.

Xanthophylls- A group of yellow coloring pigments contained in the buds, leaves, flowers and fruits of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms; in animals - in the liver of mammals, chicken yolk.

Xerophilus- An organism adapted to life in dry habitats, in conditions of moisture deficit.

Xerophyte- Plant of arid habitats, common in steppes, semi-deserts, deserts.

Lability- Instability, variability, functional mobility; high adaptability or, conversely, the instability of the organism to environmental conditions.

Latent- Hidden, invisible.

Leukoplasts- Colorless plastids.

Lysis- Destruction of cells by their complete or partial dissolution both under normal conditions and during the penetration of pathogens.

Lichenology- A section of botany that studies lichens.

Locus- The part of the chromosome in which the gene is localized.

Lordosis- The curvature of the spine, facing the bulge forward.

Macroevolution- Evolutionary transformations occurring at the supraspecific level and causing the formation of ever larger taxa (from genera to types and kingdoms of nature).

Mediator- A substance, the molecules of which are able to react with specific receptors of the cell membrane and change its permeability for certain ions, causing the emergence of an action potential - an active electrical signal.

Mesoderm- Medium germ layer.

Metabolism- Metabolism and energy.

Metamorphosis- The process of transformation of a larva into an adult animal.

Mycology- The scientific industry researching mushrooms.

Mycorrhiza- Mushroom root; symbiotic habitation of fungi on (or in) the roots of higher plants.

Microbiology- A biological discipline that studies microorganisms - their taxonomy, morphology, physiology, biochemistry, etc.

Microevolution- Evolutionary transformations within a species at the population level, leading to speciation.

Mimicry- Imitation of non-poisonous, edible and unprotected species of poisonous and well-protected animals from the attack of predators.

Modeling- A method of research and demonstration of various structures, physiological and other functions, evolutionary, ecological processes through their simplified imitation.

Modification- Non-hereditary changes in the characteristics of the organism, which occurs under the influence of environmental conditions.

Monitoring- Tracking any objects or phenomena, including biological ones; a multipurpose information system, the main tasks of which are observation, assessment and forecast of the state of the natural environment under the influence of anthropogenic impact in order to warn of emerging critical situations that are harmful or dangerous to human health, the well-being of other living beings, their communities, natural and man-made objects, etc. .d.

Monogamy- Monogamy, mating of a male with one female for one or more seasons.

Monohybrid crossing- Crossing of individuals according to one pair of signs.

Monospermia- Penetration into the egg of only one sperm (sperm).

Morganida- A unit of distance between two genes in one linkage group, characterized by the frequency of crossing over in%.

Morula- The early stage of embryo development, which is a congestion a large number blastomere cells without a separate cavity; in most animals, the morula stage is followed by the blastula stage.

Morphology- A complex of scientific branches and their sections, which investigates the shape and structure of animals and plants.

Mutagenesis- The process of occurrence of mutations.

Mutation- An abrupt change in genes under the influence of physical, chemical and biological factors.

Mutualism- A form of symbiosis in which one partner cannot exist without the other.

Heredity- The property of organisms to repeat similar signs and properties in a series of generations.

Freelogging- One of the forms of beneficial-neutral relationships between organisms, when one organism receives nutrients from another without harming it.

Neirula- The stage of development of the embryo of chordates, at which the lamina of the neural tube (from the ectoderm) and axial organs are laid.

Neutralism- Lack of mutual influence of organisms.

Noosphere- The part of the biosphere in which human activity is manifested, both positive and negative, the sphere of "reason".

Nucleoprotein- A complex of proteins with nucleic acids.

Obligate- Required.

Metabolism- Consistent consumption, transformation, use, accumulation and loss of substances and energy in living organisms in the course of life, allowing them to self-preserve, grow, develop and reproduce themselves in the environment, as well as adapt in it.

Ovulation- The release of eggs from the ovary into the body cavity.

Ontogenesis- Individual development of the body.

Fertilization- The fusion of germ cells.

Organogenesis- The process of formation and development of organs during ontogenesis.

Ornithology- A section of zoology that studies birds.

Paleontology- A scientific discipline that studies fossil organisms, their living conditions and burial.

Natural monument- A separate rare or interesting object, living or inanimate nature, in terms of scientific, cultural, educational, historical and memorial value, deserving protection.

Parallelism- Independent acquisition by organisms in the course of evolution of similar structural features based on features (genome) inherited from common ancestors.

Parthenogenesis- Development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg, virgin reproduction.

Pedosphere- The shell of the Earth, formed by the soil cover.

Pinocytosis- Absorption of substances in dissolved form.

Pleiotropy- The dependence of several traits on one gene.

Poikilotherm- An organism that is unable to maintain the internal body temperature, and therefore changes it depending on the temperature of the environment, for example, fish, amphibians.

Polygamy- Polygamy; mating of the male during the breeding season with many females.

Polymerism- The dependence of the development of one and the same trait or property of an organism on several genes that are independent in action.

Polyploidy- Multiple increase in the number of chromosomes.

Breed- A set of domestic animals of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and conformation.

Protistology- A section of biology that studies protozoa.

Processing- Chemical modification of substances (fermines and hormones) that are synthesized in the EPS channels in an inactive form.

Radiobiology- A section of biology that studies the effects of all types of radiation on organisms and how to protect them from radiation.

Regeneration- Restoration of lost or damaged organs and tissues by the body, as well as restoration of the whole organism from its parts.

Reducent- An organism that converts organic matter into inorganic in the course of its life.

Reotaxis- The movement of some lower plants, protozoa and individual cells towards the flow of fluid or the location of the body parallel to it.

Rheotropism- The property of the roots of multicellular plants when they grow in a stream of water to bend in the direction of this current or towards it.

Retrovirus- A virus whose genetic material is RNA. When a retrovirus enters a host cell, a reverse transcription process takes place. As a result of this process, DNA is synthesized on the basis of viral RNA, which is then incorporated into the host's DNA.

Reflex- The body's response to external irritation through the nervous system.

Receptor- A sensitive nerve cell that perceives external stimuli.

Recipient- An organism that is receiving blood or organ transplants.

Rudiments- Underdeveloped organs, tissues and signs that the evolutionary ancestors of the species had in a developed form, but lost their meaning in the process phylogenesis.

Selection- Breeding new and improving existing varieties of plants, animal breeds, strains of microorganisms by means of artificial mutagenesis and selection, hybridization, genetic and cellular engineering.

Symbiosis- The type of relationship between organisms of different systematic groups: coexistence, mutually beneficial, often obligatory, cohabitation of individuals of two or more species.

Synapse- The place of contact of nerve cells with each other.

Synecology- A section of ecology that studies biological communities and their relationship with the environment.

Taxonomy- Section of biology, dedicated to the description, designation and classification by groups of all existing and extinct organisms, the establishment of relationships between individual species and groups of species.

Scoliosis- Curvatures of the spine facing right or left.

Variety- A set of cultivated plants of the same species, artificially created by man and characterized by certain hereditary characteristics, productivity and structural characteristics.

Spermatogenesis- The formation of male germ cells.

Splicing- Process of editing i-RNA, in which some of the marked regions of i-RNA are excised, and the rest are read into one strand; occurs in the nucleoli during transcription.

Succulent- Plant with juicy, fleshy leaves or stems, easily tolerates high temperatures, but does not withstand dehydration.

Succession- Consecutive change of biocenoses (ecosystems), expressed in changes in the species composition and structure of the community.

Serum- The liquid part of the blood without corpuscles and fibrin, formed in the process of their separation during blood clotting outside the body.

Taxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of a unilaterally acting stimulus.

Teratogen- Biological effects, chemicals and physical factors that cause the development of deformities in organisms in the process of ontogenesis.

Thermoregulation- A set of physiological and biochemical processes that ensure the constancy of body temperature in warm-blooded animals and humans.

Thermotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of temperature.

Thermotropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of heat.

Textile- A set of cells and intercellular substance that plays a certain role in the body.

Tolerance- The ability of organisms to tolerate deviations environmental factors from the optimal ones.

Transcription- Biosynthesis of i-RNA on the DNA matrix, is carried out in the cell nucleus.

Translocation- Chromosomal mutation, as a result of which there is an exchange of sections of non-homologous chromosomes or the transfer of a section of a chromosome to the other end of the same chromosome.

Broadcast- Synthesis of the protein polypeptide chain is carried out in the cytoplasm on the ribosomes.

Transpiration- Evaporation of water by the plant.

Tropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the unilateral action of any stimulus.

Turgor- The elasticity of plant cells, tissues and organs due to the pressure of the contents of the cells on their elastic walls.

Phagocyte- A cell of multicellular animals (humans), capable of capturing and digesting foreign bodies, in particular microbes.

Phagocytosis- Active capture and absorption of living cells and non-living particles by unicellular organisms or special cells of multicellular organisms - phagocytes. The phenomenon was discovered by I.I.Mechnikov.

Phenology- The body of knowledge about seasonal natural phenomena, the timing of their occurrence and the reasons that determine these terms.

Phenotype- The totality of all internal and external signs and properties of an individual.

Enzyme- A biological catalyst, by its chemical nature, is a protein that is necessarily present in all cells of a living organism.

Physiology- A biological discipline that studies the functions of a living organism, the processes occurring in it, metabolism, adaptation to the environment, etc.

Phylogenesis- Historical development of the species.

Photoperiodism- The reactions of organisms to the change of day and night, manifested in fluctuations in the intensity of physiological processes.

Phototaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of light.

Phototropism- Directed growth movement of plant organs caused by the one-sided action of light.

Chemosynthesis- The process of formation by some microorganisms of organic substances from inorganic due to the energy of chemical bonds.

Chemotaxis- Directed movement of organisms, individual cells and their organelles under the influence of chemicals.

Predation- Eating animals that were alive until they were turned into food (with their capture and killing).

Chromatid- One of two nucleoprotein filaments formed during the duplication of chromosomes in the process of cell division.

Chromatin- Nucleoprotein, which forms the basis of the chromosome.

Cellulose- A carbohydrate from the group of polysaccharides, consisting of residues of glucose molecules.

Centromere- The part of the chromosome that holds together its two strands (chromatids).

Cyst- The form of existence of unicellular and some multicellular organisms, temporarily covered with a dense shell, which allows these organisms to survive adverse environmental conditions.

Cytology- The science of the cell.

Schizogony- Asexual reproduction by dividing the body into a large number of daughter individuals; typical for sporozoans.

Strain- A pure single-species culture of microorganisms isolated from a specific source and having specific physiological and biochemical characteristics.

Exocytosis- Isolation of substances from the cell by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of vesicles surrounded by the membrane.

Ecology- A field of knowledge that studies the relationship of organisms and their communities with the environment.

Ectoderm- The outer germ layer.

Embryology- A scientific discipline that studies the embryonic development of the body.

Endocytosis- Absorption of substances by surrounding them with outgrowths of the plasma membrane with the formation of bubbles surrounded by the membrane.

Endoderm- Internal germ layer.

Ethology- The science of animal behavior in natural conditions.

Chromosomal aberration(or chromosomal abnormality) is a generalized name for any of the types of chromosomal mutations: deletions, translocations, inversions, duplications. Sometimes genomic mutations are also denoted (aneuplodia, trisomy, etc.).

Acrocephaly (oxycephaly)- a high "tower" skull.

Allele- one of two or more alternative forms of a gene, each of which is characterized by a unique nucleotide sequence; alleles usually differ in nucleotide sequences.

• Wild-type allele(normal): A mutation in a gene that does not affect its function.
• Allele dominant: an allele, one dose of which is sufficient for its phenotypic manifestation.
• Allele mutant: mutation of a gene that disrupts its function.
• Allele recessive: an allele that phenotypically manifests itself only in a homozygous state and is masked in the presence of a dominant allele.

Allelic series- monogenic hereditary diseases caused by various mutations in the same gene, but belonging to different nosological groups in their clinical manifestations.

Alopecia- permanent or temporary, complete or partial hair loss.

Alpha-fetoprotein (AFP)- an embryonic protein found in the blood of the fetus, newborn, pregnant woman, as well as in the amniotic fluid.

Amniocentesis- puncture of the amniotic sac in order to obtain amniotic fluid.

Amplicon- extrachromosomal amplification unit.

DNA Amplifier (thermal cycler)- the device required for the polymerase chain reaction (PCR); allows you to set the required number of cycles and select the optimal time and temperature parameters for each cycle procedure.

Amplification- an increase in the number of copies of genes (amount of DNA)

DNA amplification- Selective copying of a specific section of DNA.

Amphidiploids- eukaryotic cells containing two double sets of chromosomes as a result of the union of two genomes.

Aneuplodia- an altered set of chromosomes, in which one or more chromosomes from the usual set are either absent or are represented by additional copies.

Aniridia- lack of an iris.

Ankyloblefaron- fusion of the edges of the eyelids with adhesions covered with a mucous membrane.

Anophthalmia- the absence of one or both eyeballs.

Antibiotic- a substance that inhibits the growth of cells or kills them. Usually antibiotics block one of the steps in the synthesis of proteins or nucleic acids.

Antigen- a substance (usually proteins, less often polysaccharides) that causes an immune response in animals (the formation of antibodies).

Antigenic determinant (epitope)- a site of a protein or polysaccharide molecule that has the ability to induce the formation of antibodies of a given specificity.

Anticodon- a sequence of three nucleotides in the transport RNA molecule, complementary to the coding triplet in the mRNA molecule.

Antimongoloid eye incision- the outer corners of the palpebral fissures are lowered.

Antimutagenesis- the process of preventing the fixation (formation) of a mutation, i.e., the return of the initially damaged chromosome or gene to its original state.

Antibody- a protein (immunoglobulin) formed by the immune system of the animal body in response to the introduction of an antigen and capable of entering into a specific interaction with it.

Anticipation- an increase in the severity of the course of the disease in a number of generations.

Anencephaly- complete or almost complete absence of the brain.

Aplasia (agenesis)- complete congenital absence of an organ or part of it.

Arachnodactyly- unusually long and thin fingers.

Assorted marriages- marriages in which the choice of a marriage partner for one or several characteristics is not accidental.

Autosome- any non-sex chromosome. A person has 22 pairs of autosomes.

Autosomal dominant inheritance- the type of inheritance. in which one mutant allele localized in the autosome is sufficient for the disease (or trait) to be expressed.

Autosomal recessive inheritance- the type of inheritance of a trait or disease, in which a mutant allele localized in an autosome must be inherited from both parents.

Aheiria (apodia)- underdevelopment or absence of the hand (foot).

Bacteriophage- Bacterial virus: consists of DNA or RNA packed in a protein coat.

Gene bank (library)- a complete set of genes of a given organism, obtained as part of recombinant DNA.

Protein engineering- creation of artificial proteins with given properties by directed changes (mutations) in genes or by exchange of loci between heterologous genes.

Chorionic biopsy- a procedure performed at 7-11 weeks of pregnancy in order to obtain cells for prenatal diagnosis.

Blepharophimosis- shortening of the eyelids horizontally, i.e. narrowing of the palpebral fissures.

Blepharochalasia- atrophy of the skin of the upper eyelids

Southern blot hybridization- a method for identifying DNA regions containing sequences complementary to a DNA probe among electrophoretically separated DNA fragments fixed on a solid matrix (nitrocellulose or nylon filters).

Blotting- Transfer of DNA, RNA or protein molecules from the gel, in which the electrophoresis took place, onto a nitrocellulose filter (membrane).

Diseases

• Autosomal diseases- due to defects in genes localized in autosomes
• Congenital diseases- present in the child from the moment of birth
• Diseases dominant- develop in the presence of one mutant gene in a heterozygous state
• Diseases are monogenic- due to a defect in one gene
• Multifactorial diseases- based on both genetic and environmental components; the genetic component is a combination of different alleles of several loci that determine the hereditary predisposition to the disease in different conditions external environment
• Hereditary diseases- based on a genetic component
• Recessive diseases- develop in the presence of a mutant gene in a homozygous state
• Sex-linked diseases- due to a defect in genes localized in the X- or Y-chromosomes
• Chromosomal diseases- due to numerical and structural abnormalities of the karyotype

Brachydactyly- shortening of the fingers.

Brachycamptodactyly- shortening of the metacarpal (metatarsal) bones and middle phalanges in combination with camptodactyly.

Brachycephaly- an increase in the transverse size of the head with a relative decrease in the longitudinal size

Vaccine- a preparation of a weakened or killed infectious agent (virus, bacteria, etc.) or its individual components, carrying antigenic determinants, capable of causing the formation of immunity to this infection in animals (humans).

Vesicles- membrane vesicles.

Vector- a DNA molecule capable of incorporating foreign DNA and autonomous replication, serving as a tool for introducing genetic information into a cell.

Vector for cloning- any small plasmid, phage or DNA containing an animal virus, into which foreign viral DNA can be inserted.

Viruses- infectious agents of a non-cellular nature, capable, in the process of realizing genetic information encoded in their genome, to rearrange cell metabolism, directing it towards the synthesis of viral particles.

Vitiligo- focal depigmentation of the skin.

Hydrogen bond- is formed between the electronegative atom of the molecule (oxygen, nitrogen) and the electropositive hydrogen nucleus (proton), which, in turn, is covalently bonded to another electronegative atom of the same or neighboring molecule.

Congenital diseases- diseases present at birth.

? -Galactosidase- an enzyme that hydrolyzes β-galactosides, in particular lactose, with the formation of free galactose.

Gamete- a mature reproductive cell.

Haploid- a cell containing a single set of genes or chromosomes.

Hemizygosity- the state of the organism in which a gene is present on one chromosome.

Gene- a sequence of nucleotides in DNA that determines a certain function in the body or provides for the transcription of another gene.

Genetic map- a diagram of the location of structural genes and regulatory elements in the chromosome.

Genetic code- correspondence between triplets in DNA (or RNA) and amino acids of proteins.

Genetic Engineering- a set of techniques, methods and technologies for producing recombinant RNA and DNA, isolating genes from the body (cells), manipulating genes and introducing them into other organisms.

Gene therapy- the introduction of genetic material (DIC or RNA) into the cell, the function of which it changes (or the function of the body).

Genome- general genetic information contained in the genes of an organism, or the genetic makeup of a cell. The term "genome" is sometimes used to refer to a haploid set of chromosomes.

Genotype: 1) all the genetic information of the organism; 2) genetic characteristics of the organism for one or more studied loci.

Regulator gene- a gene encoding a regulatory protein that activates or suppresses the transcription of other genes.

Reporter gene- a gene whose product is determined using simple and sensitive methods and whose activity is normally absent in the tested cells. It is used in genetically engineered constructions to mark the target product.

Gene amplifier (enhancer)- a short segment of DNA that affects the level of expression of adjacent genes, increasing the frequency of initiation and transcription.

Heterozygote- a cell (or organism) containing two different alleles at a specific locus of homologous chromosomes.

Heterozygosity- the presence of different alleles in a diploid cell.

Heterozygous organism- an organism that has two different forms of a given gene (different alleles) in homologous chromosomes.

Heterochromatin- a region of a chromosome (sometimes a whole chromosome), which has a dense compact structure in the interphase.

Heterochromia of the iris- unequal staining of different parts of the iris.

In situ hybridization- hybridization between denatured DNA of cells on a glass slide and single-stranded RNA or DNA labeled with radioactive isotopes or immunofluorescent compounds.

DNA hybridization- the formation of double-stranded DNA or DNA: RNA duplexes in the experiment as a result of the interaction of complementary nucleotides.

Somatic cell hybridization- the fusion of non-sex cells, a method for obtaining somatic hybrids (see).

Fusion protein (polypeptide)- see Fusion protein (polypeptide).

Hybridomas- hybrid lymphoid cells obtained by fusion of a tumor myeloma cell with normal lymphoid cells of an immunized animal or human.

Hyperkeratosis- excessive thickening of the stratum corneum of the epidermis.

Hypertelorism- increased distance between the inner edges of the eye sockets.

Hypertrichosis- excess hair growth.

Congenital hypoplasia- underdevelopment of an organ, manifested by a deficiency in the relative mass or size of the organ.

Hypospadias- the lower cleft of the urethra with a displacement of its external opening.

Hypotelorism- reduced distance between the inner edges of the eye sockets.

Hirsutism- Excessive hair growth in girls according to the male pattern.

Glycosylation- attachment to the protein of the carbohydrate residue

Hollandric inheritance- inheritance linked to the Y chromosome.

Holoprosencephaly- the telencephalon is not divided and is represented by a hemisphere with a single ventricular cavity freely communicating with the subarachnoid space.

Homozygote- a cell (or organism) containing two identical alleles at a specific locus of homologous chromosomes.

Homozygosity- the presence of the same alleles in a diploid cell.

Homozygous organism- an organism that has two identical copies of a given gene in homologous chromosomes.

Homologous chromosomes- chromosomes that are identical in the set of genes that make them up.

Clutch group- all genes localized on one chromosome.

Gene fingerprinting- identification of variations in the number and length of tandem DNA repeats.

Deletion- the type of chromosomal mutation in which a portion of the chromosome is lost; a type of gene mutation in which a section of a DNA molecule is dropped.

Denaturation- violation of the spatial structure of the molecule as a result of the rupture of intra- or intermolecular non-covalent bonds.

Distichiasis- double row of eyelashes.

DNA polymerase- an enzyme that leads matrix DNA synthesis.

Dolichocephaly- the predominance of the longitudinal dimensions of the head over the transverse ones.

Dominance- the predominant participation of only one allele in the formation of a trait in a heterozygous cell.

Dominant- a trait or corresponding allele manifested in heterozygotes.

Gene drift- change in gene frequencies in a number of generations, due to random events of mitosis, fertilization and reproduction.

Duplication- the type of chromosomal mutation in which any part of the chromosome is doubled; a type of gene mutation in which a piece of DNA is duplicated.

Genetic probe- a short piece of DIC or RNA of known structure or function, labeled with any radioactive or fluorescent compound.

Immunity- immunity of the body to infectious agents such as viruses and microbes.

Immunotoxin- a complex between the antibody and the catalytic subunit of some protein yal (diphtheria toxin, ricin, abrin, etc.).

Immunofluorescent probes- see probes DNA, RNA.

Inductor- a factor (substance, light, heat) that causes the transcription of genes that are in an inactive state.

Prophage induction- initiation of the vegetative development of the phage in lysogenic cells.

Integraza- an enzyme that implements the introduction of any genetic element into the genome through a specific site.

Integrons- genetic elements that contain the integrase gene, a specific site and a promoter next to it, which gives them the ability to integrate mobile gene cassettes and express the non-promoter genes present in them.

Interferons- proteins synthesized by vertebrate cells in response to viral infection and suppressing their development.

Intron- a non-coding region of a gene that is transcribed and then removed from the mRNA precursor during splicing (see splicing).

Intron gene- a gene containing introns.

Iterons- repetitive sequences of nucleotide residues in DNA.

Callus- the mass of undifferentiated cells formed when the plant is damaged. It can be formed from single cells when cultured on artificial media.

Campomelia- curvature of the limbs.

Camptodactyly- flexion contracture of the proximal interphalangeal joints of the fingers.

Capsida- the protein coat of the virus.

Expression cassette- a DNA fragment containing all the necessary genetic elements for the expression of a gene inserted into it.

cDNA- single-stranded DNA synthesized in vivo from an RNA template using reverse transcriptase.

Keratoconus- conical protrusion of the cornea.

Clinodactyly- lateral or medial curvature of the finger.

Clone- a group of genetically identical cells that arose asexually from a common ancestor.

DNA cloning- separation of a mixture of recombinant DNA molecules by introducing them into cells by transformation or infection. One bacterial colony is a clone, all cells of which contain the same recombinant DNA molecule.

Cell cloning- their separation by sieving on nutrient agar and obtaining colonies containing offspring from an isolated cell.

Codon- a triple of consecutive nucleotide residues in DNA or RNA, encoding a specific amino acid or signaling the end of translation.

Compartmentalization- limiting the process (product) to a certain area of ​​the cell.

Competence- the ability of cells to transform.

Complementarity(in genetics) - the property of nitrogenous bases to form paired complexes of adenine-thymine (or uracil) and guanine-cytosine with the help of hydrogen bonds during the interaction of nucleic acid chains.

Concatemeric DNA- linear DNA, in which some element (for example, phage genome) is repeated several times.

Contig- a group of several sequentially connected sequenced DNA regions.

Conjugate- a complex of several covalently linked molecules.

Conjugation- a method of exchanging genetic information in bacteria, in which, due to physical contact between cells, the transfer of cellular, plasmid or transposon DNA from the donor cell to the recipient occurs.

Cosmida- a vector containing the cos-site of phage DNA.

Craniosynostosis- premature overgrowth of the cranial sutures, limiting the growth of the skull and leading to its deformation.

Cryptophthalm- underdevelopment or absence of the eyeball, eyelids and palpebral fissure.

Lectins- proteins that bind carbohydrates.

Ligase- an enzyme that forms a phosphodiester bond between two polynucleotides.

Ligand- a molecule recognized by a specific structure, for example, a cellular receptor.

Leadership sequence- N-terminal sequence of secreted proteins, which ensures their transport across the membrane and is cleaved at the same time.

Lysis- cell decay caused by the destruction of its shell.

Lysogeny- the phenomenon of phage carriage by bacterial cells in the form of a prophage (see prophage).

Cell line- genetically homogeneous animal or plant cells that can be grown in vitro for an unlimited time.

Linker- a short synthetic oligonucleotide used to join DNA fragments in vitro; usually contains a recognition site for a specific restriction enzyme.

Sticky ends- complementary single-stranded DNA regions located at the ends of DNA molecules.

Liposomes- droplets of liquid surrounded by an artificial membrane; artificial lipid vesicles (see vesicles).

Lisencephaly (agiria)- the absence of grooves and convolutions in the cerebral hemispheres.

Phage lytic development- the phase of the phage life cycle, which begins with infection of the cell and ends with its lysis.

Locus- a piece of DNA (chromosomes) where a certain genetic determinant is located.

Macroglossia- pathological enlargement of the tongue.

Macrosomia(gigantism) - excessively increased size of certain parts of the body or very tall.

Macrostomy- excessively wide mouth gap.

Macrotia- enlarged auricles.

Macrocephaly- excessively large head.

Marker gene- a gene in recombinant DNA that encodes a selective trait.

Megalocornea(macrocornea) - an increase in the diameter of the cornea.

Interspecific hybrids- hybrids obtained from the fusion of cells belonging to different species.

Metabolism- a set of fermeutative processes that ensure the existence and reproduction of the cell.

Metabolite- a substance formed in the chemical reactions of a living cell.

Methylase- enzymes that attach a methyl group to certain nitrogenous bases in DNA.

Microgeny- small size of the lower jaw.

Micrognathia- small size of the upper jaw.

Microcornea- reduction in the diameter of the cornea.

Microstomy- excessively narrow mouth gap.

Microtia- the reduced size of the auricles.

Microfakia- small size of the lens.

Microphthalmia- small size of the eyeball.

Microcephaly- small size of the brain and cerebral skull.

Minicells- cells that do not contain chromosomal DNA. Modification of a biopolymer is a change in its structure.

Mongoloid eye section- the inner corners of the palpebral fissures are lowered.

Monoclonal antibodies- antibodies with a certain specificity, synthesized by hybridomas (see hybridomas).

Morphogenesis- implementation of the genetic program for the development of the organism.

Mugagenesis- the process of induction of mutations.

Mutagens- physical, chemical or biological agents that increase the frequency of mutations.

Mutation- a change in genetic material, often leading to a change in the properties of the organism.

"Cape of the widow"- wedge-shaped hair growth on the forehead.

Nick- single-stranded break in a DNA duplex with the formation of 3 'OH- and 5' p-ends; eliminated by DNA ligase (see DNA ligase).

Nitrogenase- an enzyme that fixes atmospheric nitrogen.

Nucleases- the general name for enzymes that break down nucleic acid molecules.

Reverse transcriptase- an enzyme that catalyzes the reaction of DNA synthesis using an RNA template.

Oligonucleotide- a chain consisting of several (from 2 to 20) nucleotide residues.

Omphalocele- hernia of the umbilical cord.

Oncogenes- genes whose products have the ability to transform eukaryotic cells so that they acquire the properties of tumor cells.

Oncornavirus- RNA-containing virus that causes degeneration of normal cells into cancerous ones; contains reverse transcriptase.

Operator- a regulatory region of a gene (operon) with which a repressor specifically binds (see repressor), thereby preventing the start of transcription.

Operon- a set of jointly transcribed genes, usually controlling related biochemical functions.

Pachyonychia- Thickening of the nails.

Peromelia- short limbs with normal body sizes.

Pilonidal fossa(sacral sinus, epithelial coccygeal passage) - a canal lined with stratified squamous epithelium, opening in the intergluteal fold at the coccyx.

Plasmid- a circular or linear DNA molecule that replicates autonomously from the cell chromosome.

Polydactyly- an increase in the number of fingers on the hands and (or) feet.

Polylinker- a synthetic oligonucleotide containing recognition sites for several restriction enzymes (see restriction enzyme).

Polymerase- enzymes leading matrix synthesis of nucleic acids.

Polypeptide- a polymer consisting of amino acid residues linked by peptide bonds.

Primer- a short oligo- or polynucleotide sequence with a free Z'OH group, complementary linked to single-stranded DNA or RNA; from its 3'-end, DNA polymerase begins to build up the polydeoxyribonucleotide chain.

Preauricular papillomas- fragments of the outer ear located in front of the auricle.

Preauricular fistulas(preauricular fossa) - blindly ending passages, the outer opening of which is located at the base of the ascending part of the curl of the auricle.

Progeny- overdevelopment of the lower jaw, massive chin.

Progeria- premature aging of the body.

Prognathia- protrusion of the upper jaw forward compared to the lower due to its excessive development.

Prosencephaly- insufficient division of the anterior cerebral bladder into large hemispheres.

Prokaryotes- organisms that do not have a cell nucleus.

Promoter- the regulatory region of the gene (operon), to which the RNA polymerase is attached in order to start transcription.

Protooncogenes- normal chromosomal genes from which the oncogenes contained in some retroviruses originated.

Protoplast- a plant or microbial cell devoid of a cell wall.

Prophage- the intracellular state of the phage under conditions when its lytic functions are suppressed.

Processing- a special case of modification (see modification), when the number of links in the biopolymer decreases.

Pterygium- pterygoid folds of the skin.

Regulon- a system of genes scattered throughout the genome, but obeying a common regulatory protein.

Recombinant DNA molecule(in genetic engineering) - is obtained as a result of the covalent union of a vector and a foreign DNA fragment.

Recombinant plasmid- a plasmid containing a fragment (s) of foreign DNA.

Recombinant protein- a protein, part of the amino acid sequence of which is encoded by one gene, and part by another.

In vitro recombination- in vitro operations leading to the creation of recombinant DNA molecules.

Homologous recombination- exchange of genetic material between two homologous DNA molecules.

Site-specific recombination- unification by breaking and fusion of two DNA molecules or sections of one molecule, occurring at certain sites.

Renaturation- restoration of the original spatial structure of molecules.

DNA repair- correction of damage to the DNA molecule, restoring its original structure.

Replicator- a DNA region responsible for the initiation of replication.

Replication- the process of doubling DNA molecules or genomic viral RNA.

Replicon- a DNA molecule or a portion thereof under the control of a replicator.

Repression- suppression of gene activity, most often by blocking their transcription.

Repressor- a protein or antisense RNA that suppresses gene activity.

Restriction enzymes- site-specific endonucleases that are part of the restriction-modification system.

Restrictions- DNA fragments formed after its hydrolysis with a restriction enzyme.

Restriction map- a diagram of a DNA molecule, which indicates the sites of its cutting by various restriction enzymes.

Restriction analysis- establishing the sites of DNA cleavage by restriction enzymes.

Retroviruses- RNA-containing animal viruses encoding reverse transcriptase and forming a provirus with chromosomal localization.

Recessiveness- non-participation of the allele in the formation of a trait in a heterozygous cell.

Ribonuclease(RNases) - enzymes that break down RNA.

Site- a section of a DNA molecule, protein, etc.

Sequencing- Establishing the sequence of units in nucleic acid molecules or proteins (polypeptides).

Selective media- nutrient media, on which only cells with certain properties can grow.

Septum- a structure formed in the center of a bacterial cell at the end of the division cycle and dividing it into two daughter cells.

Symphalangia(orthodactyly) - fusion of the phalanges of the finger.

Syndactyly- complete or partial fusion of adjacent fingers or toes.

Synechia- fibrous cords connecting the surfaces of adjacent organs.

Sinofreeze- fused eyebrows.

Scaphocephaly- an elongated skull with a protruding ridge in place of the prematurely overgrown sagittal suture.

Screening- search in sifters of cells or phages for those colonies that contain recombinant DNA molecules.

Fusion protein(polypeptide) - a protein formed by the fusion of two different polypeptides.

Somatic hybrids- a product of the fusion of non-sex cells.

Somatic cells- tissue cells of multicellular organisms, not related to sex.

Spacer- in DNA or RNA - a non-coding sequence of nucleotides between genes; in proteins, an amino acid sequence linking adjacent globular domains.

Splicing- the process of formation of a mature mRNA or functional protein by removing the internal parts of molecules - RNA introns or inteins from proteins.

Stop - "rocking chair"- a foot with a sagging arch and a posterior heel.

Strabism- squint.

Super Producer- a microbial strain aimed at the synthesis of a certain product in high concentration.

Spherophakia- spherical shape of the lens.

Telangioctasia- local excessive expansion of capillaries and small vessels.

Telecant- displacement of the inner angles of the palpebral fissures laterally with normally located orbits.

Transduction- transfer of DNA fragments using a bacteriophage.

Transcription- synthesis of RNA on a DNA template; carried out by RNA polymerase.

Transcript- a transcription product, that is, RNA synthesized at a given DNA site as on a template and complementary to one of its strands.

Reverse transcriptase- an enzyme that synthesizes single-stranded DNA from RNA as from a template.

Broadcast- the process of polypeptide synthesis, determined by messenger RNA.

Transposon- a genetic element that is replicated as part of a replicon and is capable of independent movement (transposition) and integration into different parts of chromosomal or extrachromosomal DNA.

Transfection- transformation of cells using isolated DNA.

Transformation- a change in the hereditary properties of the cell caused by the absorbed DNA.

Transformation(in molecular genetics) - the transfer of genetic information through isolated DNA.

Transformation(oncotransformation) - partial or complete dedifferentiation of cells caused by dysregulation of cell growth.

Trigonocephaly- expansion of the skull in the occipital and narrowing in the frontal part.

"Shamrock"- an abnormal shape of the skull, characterized by a high protruding forehead, a flat occiput, protrusion of the temporal bones, when connected to the parietal bones, deep impressions are determined.

Temperate phage- bacteriophage. capable of lysogenizing a cell and, in the form of a prophage, is inside a bacterial chromosome or in a plasmid state.

Factor F(fertility factor, sex factor) is a conjugative F-plasmid found in E. coli cells.

Phenotype- external manifestation of the properties of an organism, depending on its genotype and environmental factors.

Filter- the distance from the nasal point to the red border of the upper lip.

Phocomelia- the absence or significant underdevelopment of the proximal extremities, as a result of which normally developed moans and (or) hands seem to be attached directly to the body.

Chimeras- laboratory hybrids (recombinants).

Centromere- a locus on a chromosome, physically necessary for the distribution of homologous chromosomes among daughter cells.

Shine-Dalgarno sequence- a section of prokaryotic mRNA necessary for the landing of ribosomes on it and its correct translation. Contains a nucleotide sequence complementary to the 3'-end of 16S ribosomal RNA.

Strain- a line of cells (or viruses), leading from one cell (or virus).

Exon- the part of the intron gene that is preserved during splicing.

Exonuclease- an enzyme that hydrolyzes phosphodiester bonds from the ends of DNA.

Exophthalmos- displacement of the eyeball forward, accompanied by the expansion of the palpebral fissure.

Explant- material of any tissue excreted from the body.

Gene expression- the process of implementing the information encoded in the gene. Consists of two main stages - transcription and translation.

Lens ectopia(subluxation, dislocation of the lens) - displacement of the lens from the vitreous fossa.

Ectropion of the century- eversion of the edge of the eyelid.

Electrophoresis- separation of electrically charged polymers in electric field... Usually it is carried out in gels (gel electrophoresis) so that the zones of the separated molecules are not blurred by thermal motion.

Endonuclease- an enzyme that hydrolyzes phosphodiester bonds within the DNA strand.

Enhancer- a regulatory DNA region that enhances transcription from the nearest promoter.

Epibulbar dermoid- lipodermoid growths on the surface of the eyeball, more often on the border of the iris and the tunica albuginea.

Epicantus- a vertical skin fold at the inner corner of the palpebral fissure.

Eukaryotes- organisms whose cells contain nuclei.

ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT, a set of inorganic conditions for the existence of organisms. These conditions affect the distribution of all life on the planet. The abiotic environment is determined by various factors, including chemical (the composition of the atmospheric air ...

Apricot

APRICOT, genus of trees and shrubs of this. rosaceae. Includes 10 species, wildly growing mainly in Asia. In culture, more than 5 thousand years. Mainly common apricot is grown. Tree height up to 8 m, durable, light-requiring, heat-resistant, for ...

Avicenna

Avocado

AVOCADO (American Perseus), evergreen tree of this. laurels, fruit crop... Homeland - Central and South America, where it has been grown for a long time. It is also cultivated in Australia, Cuba. In Russia - on the Black Sea coast of the Caucasus. Trunk in ...

Australian echidna

AUSTRALIAN ECHIDNA, mammal of the family echidnova neg. monotremes (oviparous). Lives in Eastern Australia and on its western tip. L. body approx. 40 cm, weight 2.5–6 kg. The body is covered with thick long needles. 6-8 cm. The most powerful needles are located ...

Australopithecus

AUSTRALOPITEKOVYE, fossil representatives of neg. primates, walking on two legs. They have common features both with monkeys (for example, a primitive structure of the skull) and with humans (for example, a more developed brain than a monkey, upright posture). V...

Autotrophs

AUTOTROPHES, organisms that synthesize the organic substances they need from inorganic compounds. Terrestrial green plants belong to autotrophs (they form organic matter from carbon dioxide and water during photosynthesis), algae, ...

Agave

AGAVA, a genus of perennial plants of the family. agave. Includes St. 300 kinds. Homeland - Central America and the Caribbean. Succulents. Many species (American agave, drawn, etc.) are grown as indoor plants. Stems are short silt ...

Adaptation

ADAPTATION, adaptation of an organism, population or biological species to environmental conditions. Includes morphological, physiological, behavioral and other changes (or a combination of them) that ensure survival in these conditions. Adaptations ...

Adenosine triphosphate

ADENOSINTRIPHOSPHATE (ATP), nucleotide, universal accumulator and carrier of chemical energy in living cells. The ATP molecule consists of the nitrogenous base of adenine, the carbohydrate ribose, and three residues of phosphoric acid (phosphates). Chemical energy of ATP ...

Adenoids

Adenoids, an increase in the pharyngeal (nasopharyngeal) tonsil due to the proliferation of its lymphoid tissue. The reasons are allergies, childhood infections. Adenoids cause impaired nasal breathing, hearing loss, nasal voice. Often attached ...

Page 1 of 2

Dictionary of basic biological terms and concepts

A

ABIOTIC ENVIRONMENT - a set of inorganic conditions (factors) inhabiting organisms. These include the composition atmospheric air, composition of sea and fresh waters, soil, air and soil temperature, lighting and other factors.

AGROBIOCENOSIS - a set of organisms that live on lands occupied by crops and planting of agricultural crops. In Armenia, the vegetation cover is man-made and usually consists of one or two cultivated plants and their accompanying weeds.

AGROECOLOGY is a branch of ecology that studies the patterns of organization of artificial plant communities, their structure and functioning.

NITROGEN-FIXING BACTERIA - bacteria capable of assimilating nitrogen from the air with the formation of nitrogen compounds available for use by other organisms. Among A. b. there are both freely living in the soil, and coexisting with mutual benefit with the roots of higher plants.

ANTIBIOTICS - specific chemical substances formed by microorganisms and capable of exerting a selective effect on other microorganisms and cells of malignant tumors even in small quantities. In a broad sense, A. also includes antimicrobial substances in the tissues of higher plants (phytoncides). The first A. was obtained in 1929 by Fleming (although penicillus was used by Russian doctors much earlier). The term "A." proposed in 1942 by Z. Waxman.

ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS - factors of human influence on the environment. Human influence on plants can be both positive (plant cultivation, pest control, protection rare species and biocenoses) and negative. The negative human influence can be direct - deforestation, collection flowering plants, trampling of vegetation in parks and forests, indirectly - through environmental pollution, destruction of pollinating insects, etc.

B

BACTERIA is the kingdom of living organisms. They differ from organisms of other kingdoms in the structure of the cell. Single-celled or grouped microorganisms. Fixed or mobile - with flagella.

BACTERICIDITY - the ability of plant juices, blood serum of animals and some chemicals to kill bacteria.

BIOINDICATORS - organisms, the features of development or the number of which serve as indicators of natural processes or anthropogenic changes in the environment. Many organisms can exist only within certain, often narrow, changes in environmental factors ( chemical composition soil, water, atmosphere, climatic and weather conditions, the presence of other organisms). For example, lichens and some coniferous trees B. serve the purity of the air. Aquatic plants, their species composition and number are B. degree of water pollution.

BIOMASS - the total mass of individuals of a species, a group of species or a community of organisms. It is usually expressed in units of mass (grams, kilograms) per unit area or volume of habitat (hectare, cubic meter). Terrestrial plants make up about 90% of the biosphere of the entire biosphere. The rest is aquatic vegetation.

BIOSPHERE - the area of ​​distribution of life on Earth, the composition, structure and energy of which are determined by the joint activity of living organisms.

BIOCENOSIS is a set of plants and animals in the food chain, formed in the process of evolutionary development, influencing each other in the course of the struggle for existence and natural selection (plants, animals and microorganisms that inhabit a lake, a river valley, a pine forest).

V

SPECIES is the basic unit in the taxonomy of living organisms. A set of individuals that have a number of common characteristics and are capable of interbreeding with the formation of fertile offspring inhabiting a certain territory.

SIMILARITY - the ability of seeds to give normal seedlings for a specified period under certain conditions. Express germination as a percentage.

HIGHER PLANTS - complex multicellular organisms with well-defined vegetative organs, adapted, as a rule, to life in a terrestrial environment.

G

GAMETA is a reproductive cell. Provides the transfer of hereditary information from parents to descendants.

GAMETOFIT is a sexual generation in the life cycle of plants developing with alternating generations. Formed from spore, produces gametes. In higher plants, G. only in mosses is represented by a leafy plant. In the rest, it is poorly developed and short-lived. In lymphoids, horsetails, and ferns, G. is an outgrowth that produces both male and female gametes. In angiosperms, female G. is the embryonic sac, and male G. is pollen. They grow along river banks, in swamps and wet fields (reed, cattail).

GENERATIVE ORGANS - organs that perform the function of sexual reproduction. Flowering plants have flowers and fruits, more precisely, a speck of dust and an embryonic sac.

HYBRIDIZATION - the unification of the hereditary material of different cells in one. In agriculture - crossbreeding different varieties plants. See also Breeding.

HYGROPHYTHES are plants of humid habitats. They grow in swamps, in water, in tropical rainforests. They have a poorly developed root system. Weakly developed wood and mechanical fabrics... They can absorb moisture over the entire surface of the body.

HYDROPHYTS - aquatic plants attached to the ground and submerged in water only with the lower part. Unlike hygrophytes, they have well-developed conductive and mechanical tissues and a root system. But there are many intercellular spaces and air cavities.

GLYCOGEN is a carbohydrate, polysaccharide. Its branched molecules are built from glucose residues. Energy reserve of many living organisms. When it breaks down, glucose (sugar) is formed and energy is released. Found in the liver and muscles of vertebrates, in fungi (yeast), in algae, in the grain of some varieties of corn.

GLUCOSE - grape sugar, one of the most common simple sugars... Have green plants formed from carbon dioxide and water as a result of photosynthesis. Participates in many metabolic reactions.

TOTAL SEEDS are the most ancient of seed plants. Most are evergreen trees and shrubs. Representatives of gymnosperms are conifers (spruce, pine, cedar, fir, larch).

MUSHROOMS - the kingdom of living organisms. They combine the characteristics of both plants and animals, and also have special characteristics. There are both unicellular and multicellular fungi. The body (mycelium) consists of a system of branching filaments.

HUMUS (PUMMER) is a complex of specific dark-colored soil organic matter. It is obtained as a result of the transformation of organic residues. To a large extent determines the fertility of the soil.

D

DOUBLE PLANTS - plant species in which male (staminate) and female (pistillate) flowers are found on different individuals (willow, poplar, sea buckthorn, actinidia).

DIFFERENTIATION - the appearance of differences between homogeneous cells and tissues.

WOOD is the water-conducting tissue of plants. The main conducting element is the vessels: dead lignified germ cells. It also includes fibers that carry out a supporting function. It is characterized by annual increments: early (spring) and late (summer) wood is distinguished.

BREATHING is one of the main vital functions, a set of processes that ensure the supply of oxygen to the body, its use in chemical reactions, as well as the removal of carbon dioxide and some other metabolic products from the body.

F

ANIMALS - the kingdom of living organisms. Unlike most plants, animals feed on ready-made organic substances, have a limited body growth in time. Their cells do not have a cellulose membrane. In the process of evolution, animals have developed organ systems: digestive, respiratory, circulatory, etc.

VITAL FORM OF THE PLANT - the general appearance of the plant. Distinguish between trees, shrubs, shrubs, grasses.

LEAVING LEAF - a system of conducting beams in leaf plates, through which substances are transported. Distinguish between parallel, arcuate, finger, pinnate J.L.

Z

ZAKAZNIKI - small sections of a temporarily protected area with limited economic activities and human visits. Preserves in the reserves certain types plants or animals.

RESERVES - large territories, where the entire natural complex is preserved in its natural state. Any human economic activity is prohibited here.

GERM - an organism in the early period of development.

ZIGOTA is a cell formed as a result of the fusion of two gametes.

ZONE VEGETATION - natural vegetation that characterizes natural belts and zones (tundra, taiga, steppe, desert, etc.).

AND

IMMUNITY - immunity, resistance, the body's ability to defend its integrity. A particular manifestation of I. is immunity to infectious diseases.

INDICATORS - See indicator plants and Bioindicators.

INDICATOR PLANTS - plants or plant communities closely related to certain ecological conditions and allowing them to be qualitatively and quantitatively assessed by the presence of these plants or communities. I.R. are used in assessing the mechanical composition, degree of acidity and salinity of soils, in the search for fresh water in deserts and some minerals. For example, the species of fescue and bent grass indicate the content of lead in the soil; zinc - types of violets and yarns; copper and cobalt - resins, many cereals and mosses.

EVAPORATION - transition of water to a gaseous state. The main organ that evaporates water from a plant through the stomata is a leaf. Together with root pressure, it provides D.C. water through roots, stems and leaves. Evaporation prevents the plant from overheating.

TO

CALCEPHILES are plants that live on alkaline soils, rich in calcium. Alkaline soils can be identified by vegetation: forest anemone, six-petalled meadowsweet, larch.

CALCEPHOBES are plants that avoid limestone soils. These plants are able to bind heavy metals, the excess of which in acidic soils does not harm them. For example, peat mosses.

CAMBIUM is a single-row layer of educational tissue cells, forming wood cells inward from itself, and bast cells outward.

CAROTINES are orange-yellow pigments. Synthesized by plants. Rich K. green leaves(especially spinach), carrot roots, rose hips, currants, tomatoes. K. - accompanying pigments of photosynthesis. Oxidized derivatives of K. are xanthophylls.

GLUTEN - proteins found in wheat grains and, accordingly, in flour. Remains in the form of an elastic clot after removing the starch from the wheat dough. The baking qualities of wheat flour largely depend on the properties of K.

The CELL is the basic unit of all living organisms, an elementary living system. It can exist as a separate organism (bacteria, some algae and fungi, the simplest plants and animals) or as part of the tissues of multicellular organisms.

GROWTH CONE - the apical zone of the shoot or root, formed by the cells of the educational tissue. Provides shoot and root growth in length. K.N. the shoot is protected by rudimentary leaves, and the tip of the root growth is protected by a root cap.

CONCENTRATION - the amount of a substance in a unit of volume or mass.

ROOT SYSTEM - a set of roots of one plant. The degree of development of K. with. depends on the habitat. A person can influence the development of K. with. plants (hilling, picking, soil cultivation). Distinguish between pivotal and fibrous K.s.

ROOT is a perennial underground shoot that allows the plant to survive adverse conditions.

STARCH (STARRY) CROPS - cultivated plants, which are cultivated to obtain starch (potatoes, corn). Starch accumulates in tubers or fruits.

STARCH GRAIN - inclusions in plastids of plant cells. The growth of K.Z. occurs by imposing new layers of starch on old ones, so the grains have a layered structure.

SILICON - silicon dioxide (quartz, quartz sand).

KRONA is an aerial (above the trunk) branched part of a tree.

Xanthophylls - natural pigments from the group of carotenes, their oxygen-containing derivatives. Contained in the leaves, flowers, fruits and buds of higher plants, as well as in many algae and microorganisms. Participate in photosynthesis as additional pigments. In combination with other pigments, they create the color of the leaves in autumn.

XEROPHITES are plants of dry habitats, capable of tolerating overheating and dehydration due to a number of adaptive characteristics.

CUTICULA is a layer of fatty substance covering leaves, stems or fruits with a film. Low permeability to water, pathogens.

TALKING - branching, in which side shoots emerge from buds located at the surface of the ground and underground.

L

LAKMUS is a coloring matter obtained from some lichens. An aqueous infusion of L. is violet in color, turning blue from the action of alkalis and reddening from the action of acids. As an indicator in chemistry, "litmus paper" is used - filter paper, colored with a solution of L. With the help of L., it is possible to determine the acidity of the aqueous infusion of the soil.

LANDSCAPE - 1) type of terrain, 2) geographical landscape - an area within which the relief, climate, vegetation and fauna form typical outlines that give the whole territory unity and distinguish it from neighboring territories.

LEUKOPLASTS - colorless plastids of plant cells. They can have different shapes. One of the main functions is the synthesis and supply of nutrients: starch, oils. They can turn into chloroplasts.

LEAF MOSAIC - the arrangement of leaves, providing illumination of each leaf of the shoot. Perhaps due to the ability of the leaf petiole to grow for a long time and turn the leaf blade towards light.

LEAF POSITION - the order in which the leaves are placed on the stem. Distinguish between alternate, opposite and whorled L.

LUB is a plant tissue that provides transport of photosynthetic products from leaves to places of consumption and deposition into stock. The main conductive element is living sieve tubes. L. fibers perform a mechanical function. In the main cells of L., reserve nutrients are also deposited.

M

OIL CROPS - cultivated plants that are cultivated to obtain fatty oils (sunflower, soybeans, mustard, castor oil plant, oil flax, sesame, etc.). Most M. to. accumulate oil in seeds and fruits.

INTERNOTE - a section of the stem between two adjacent nodes. In rosette plants (dandelion, daisy), shortened tree shoots (apple, birch), and some inflorescences (umbrella, basket) M. are very short or absent.

INTERCellular - spaces between cells. Can be filled with air or water (less commonly).

INTERCellular Substance - a substance that connects cells to each other. The connection can be tight (in the integumentary tissue) or loose (in the storage tissue).

Mesophytes are plants that live in conditions with sufficient, but not excessive soil moisture. Most of the plants middle lane Russia, is in the tropics and subtropics.

MYCOLOGY is the branch of biology that studies fungi.

MICROBIOLOGY is a branch of biology that studies microorganisms. M.'s main object is bacteria. However, the term "bacteriology" is used primarily in medicine. Yeast (the kingdom of fungi) is also a traditional object of M.

PERENNIAL PLANTS - trees, shrubs, shrubs and herbaceous plants that live for more than two years. They can bloom and bear fruit.

MOLECULE is the smallest particle of a substance that has the basic chemical properties of a given substance. Consists of the same or different atoms.

PLANT MORPHOLOGY is the science that studies the structure of a plant and its forms.

Loose root system - is formed with weak growth or dying off of the main root and intensive development of adventitious roots (buttercup, plantain, wheat).

MHI (mossy) - the department of higher plants. Most often these are terrestrial perennial plants... The body consists of a stem and leaves.

MULCHING - covering the soil surface with different materials in order to control weeds, preserve soil moisture and structure. For M., organic materials are used: peat chips, fine manure, straw, as well as paper, cardboard, etc. M. helps to increase the yield of agricultural crops.

N

Above-Ground Seed Germination - a method of seed germination, in which the cotyledons are brought to the surface (radish, buckwheat, beans, linden).

NATIONAL PARKS - large areas, usually located in picturesque places, where natural complexes of special value have been preserved. Unlike nature reserves, most of the N.p. open to people.

LOWER PLANTS - subkingdom of plants. N.'s body (thallus or thallus) is not dissected into root, stem and leaf. Such organisms have a special cell structure, metabolism. To N. p. include only algae (see Tallom). Previously, bacteria, lichens, algae, fungi, i.e. all organisms except higher plants and animals.

NUCLEIC ACIDS are complex organic compounds whose biological role is to store and transmit hereditary information.

Below is a brief dictionary of biological terms found on the pages of our site.

Without pretending to be complete, we have tried to provide our readers with accurate and perfectly understandable explanations and definitions of certain biological concepts and terms. Enjoy reading!

Cell... Biological unit. Organisms of plants and animals are made of cells.

Clone... One of the organisms or cells descended from one progenitor (that is, having one genotype).

Rhizome... The underground part of the stem with buds.

Plastid... A membrane-surrounded structure within plant cells, outside.

Floor... In many organisms (including vertebrates), sex is determined by a combination of certain chromosomes. In mammals, female cells contain XX chromosomes, and male cells contain XY chromosomes.

Polymorphism... I) The presence in the population of more than one variant of the same gene. 2) The appearance of various forms of the organism on different stages development.

Acquired trait... Modification of an organ during the course of an organism due to its use or non-use, in contrast to an inherited trait obtained from ancestors.

Bract... The leaf that covers the flower.

Recombination... Redistribution of genes or inherited traits in combinations other than those of the parents.

Recessive... A recessive gene shows its signs only if the body has received it from both parents. A recessive trait is a trait transmitted by recessive genes.

RNA, ribonucleic acid... Nucleic acid containing ribose. Carries DNA information about the structure of proteins; transports amino acids to the site of protein synthesis.

Saprophytes... Organisms that use organic compounds from dead bodies or animal excretions for nutrition.

Symbiosis... Mutually beneficial partnership of organisms belonging to different species.

Spore... Insexual cell serving for procreation. Sometimes - a similar cell as part of a special formation.

On the part of the plant - soft and green, or without woody tissue in the ground part.

Stoma... A miniature hole in a leaf through which water evaporates and plant respiration occurs.

Phosphorescence... Emission of light, usually (in animals) not accompanied by the release of heat, as, for example, in fireflies.

A unique process of the formation of organic compounds from inorganic substances, for the implementation of which the energy of sunlight is used. The main component of the process is chlorophyll.

Chloroplast... Plastid containing chlorophyll.

Chlorophyll... Green pigment in plant cells involved in the process of photosynthesis.

Chromosome... A filamentous structure contained in the cell nucleus, which is essential for cell division and transmission of inherited traits.

Cellulose... Carbohydrate that forms the walls of plant cells.

Cytoplasm... The internal semi-liquid medium of the cell, delimited from the external environment by a membrane.

Evolution... An irreversible process of historical change in living things. Its primary basis is changes in the genotypic composition of the population over many generations.

Ecosystem... A system that includes communities of living beings and their habitat; there are nutritional connections, energy exchange and other relationships between the components.

Ecology... The science of the relationship of organisms with each other and with the environment.

Ethology... The science of animal behavior.

Core... The part of a cell bounded by a double membrane and containing DNA.

Ovipositor... External genital organ for oviposition in females of many and some fish.