Hello. In this lecture we will talk to you about dust. But not about the dust that accumulates in your rooms, but about cosmic dust. What is this?

Cosmic dust- This very small particles of solid matter found anywhere in the Universe, including meteorite dust and interstellar matter that can absorb starlight and form dark nebulae in galaxies. Spherical dust particles about 0.05 mm in diameter are found in some marine sediments; it is believed that these are the remnants of the 5,000 tons of cosmic dust that fall on the globe every year.

Scientists believe that cosmic dust is formed not only from collisions and destruction of small solid bodies, but also due to the condensation of interstellar gas. Cosmic dust is distinguished by its origin: dust can be intergalactic, interstellar, interplanetary and circumplanetary (usually in a ring system).

Cosmic dust grains arise mainly in the slowly expiring atmospheres of stars - red dwarfs, as well as during explosive processes on stars and violent ejections of gas from the cores of galaxies. Other sources of cosmic dust include planetary and protostellar nebulae, stellar atmospheres, and interstellar clouds.

Whole clouds of cosmic dust that are located in the layer of stars that form Milky Way, prevent us from observing distant star clusters. A star cluster like the Pleiades is completely immersed in a dust cloud. The most bright stars, which are in this cluster, illuminate the dust, like a lantern illuminates fog at night. Cosmic dust can only shine by reflected light.

Blue rays of light passing through cosmic dust are attenuated more than red rays, so the starlight that reaches us appears yellowish or even reddish. Entire regions of world space remain closed to observation precisely because of cosmic dust.

Interplanetary dust, at least in comparative proximity to the Earth, is a fairly well-studied matter. 3filling all space solar system and concentrated in the plane of its equator, it was born largely as a result of random collisions of asteroids and the destruction of comets approaching the Sun. The composition of the dust, in fact, does not differ from the composition of meteorites falling on the Earth: it is very interesting to study it, and there are still many discoveries to be made in this area, but there seems to be no particular intrigue here. But thanks to this very dust in good weather in the west just after sunset or in the east before sunrise you can admire the pale cone of light above the horizon. This is the so-called zodiacal light - sunlight scattered by small cosmic dust particles.

Interstellar dust is much more interesting. Its distinctive feature is the presence of a solid core and shell. The core appears to be composed mainly of carbon, silicon and metals. And the shell is mainly made of gaseous elements frozen onto the surface of the core, crystallized under the conditions of “deep freezing” of interstellar space, and this is about 10 kelvins, hydrogen and oxygen. However, there are impurities of molecules that are more complex. These are ammonia, methane and even polyatomic organic molecules that stick to a speck of dust or form on its surface during wanderings. Some of these substances, of course, fly away from its surface, for example, under the influence of ultraviolet radiation, but this process is reversible - some fly away, others freeze or are synthesized.

If a galaxy has formed, then where the dust comes from in it is, in principle, clear to scientists. Its most significant sources are novae and supernovae, which lose part of their mass, “dumping” the shell into the surrounding space. In addition, dust is also born in the expanding atmosphere of red giants, from where it is literally swept away by radiation pressure. In their cool, by the standards of stars, atmosphere (about 2.5 - 3 thousand kelvins) there are quite a lot of relatively complex molecules.
But here is a mystery that has not yet been solved. It has always been believed that dust is a product of the evolution of stars. In other words, stars must be born, exist for some time, grow old and, say, produce dust in the last supernova explosion. But what came first - the egg or the chicken? The first dust necessary for the birth of a star, or the first star, which for some reason was born without the help of dust, grew old, exploded, forming the very first dust.
What happened in the beginning? After all, when the Big Bang occurred 14 billion years ago, there were only hydrogen and helium in the Universe, no other elements! It was then that the first galaxies began to emerge from them, huge clouds, and in them the first stars, which had to go through a long life path. Thermonuclear reactions in the cores of stars should have “cooked” more complex chemical elements, turn hydrogen and helium into carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, and so on, and after that the star had to throw it all into space, exploding or gradually shedding its shell. This mass then had to cool, cool down and finally turn into dust. But already 2 billion years after the Big Bang, in the earliest galaxies, there was dust! Using telescopes, it was discovered in galaxies 12 billion light years away from ours. At the same time, 2 billion years is too short a period for the full life cycle of a star: during this time, most stars do not have time to grow old. Where the dust came from in the young Galaxy, if there should be nothing there except hydrogen and helium, is a mystery.

Looking at the time, the professor smiled slightly.

But you will try to solve this mystery at home. Let's write down the task.

Homework.

1. Try to guess what came first, the first star or the dust?

Additional task.

1. Report on any type of dust (interstellar, interplanetary, circumplanetary, intergalactic)

2. Essay. Imagine yourself as a scientist tasked with studying cosmic dust.

3. Pictures.

Homemade assignment for students:

1. Why is dust needed in space?

Additional task.

1. Report on any type of dust. Former students of the school remember the rules.

2. Essay. Disappearance of cosmic dust.

3. Pictures.

Space exploration (meteor)dust on the surface of the Earth:problem overview

A.P.Boyarkina, L.M. Gindilis

Cosmic dust as an astronomical factor

Cosmic dust refers to particles of solid matter ranging in size from fractions of a micron to several microns. Dust matter is one of the important components outer space. It fills interstellar, interplanetary and near-Earth space, penetrates the upper layers of the Earth's atmosphere and falls on the Earth's surface in the form of so-called meteor dust, being one of the forms of material (material and energy) exchange in the Space-Earth system. At the same time, it influences a number of processes occurring on Earth.

Dust matter in interstellar space

The interstellar medium consists of gas and dust mixed in a ratio of 100:1 (by mass), i.e. the mass of dust is 1% of the mass of the gas. The average gas density is 1 hydrogen atom per cubic centimeter or 10 -24 g/cm 3 . The density of dust is correspondingly 100 times less. Despite such an insignificant density, dust matter has a significant impact on the processes occurring in Space. First of all, interstellar dust absorbs light, which is why distant objects located near the galactic plane (where the dust concentration is greatest) are not visible in the optical region. For example, the center of our Galaxy is observed only in the infrared, radio and X-rays. And other galaxies can be observed in the optical range if they are located far from the galactic plane, at high galactic latitudes. The absorption of light by dust leads to distortion of distances to stars determined photometrically. Taking absorption into account is one of the most important problems in observational astronomy. When interacting with dust, the spectral composition and polarization of light changes.

Gas and dust in the galactic disk are distributed unevenly, forming separate gas and dust clouds; the concentration of dust in them is approximately 100 times higher than in the intercloud medium. Dense gas and dust clouds do not transmit the light of the stars behind them. Therefore, they appear as dark areas in the sky, which are called dark nebulae. An example is the Coalsack region in the Milky Way or the Horsehead Nebula in the constellation Orion. If there are bright stars near a gas and dust cloud, then due to the scattering of light on dust particles, such clouds glow; they are called reflection nebulae. An example is the reflection nebula in the Pleiades cluster. The most dense are clouds of molecular hydrogen H 2, their density is 10 4 -10 5 times higher than in clouds of atomic hydrogen. Accordingly, the density of dust is just as many times higher. In addition to hydrogen, molecular clouds contain dozens of other molecules. Dust particles are nuclei of condensation of molecules; chemical reactions occur on their surface with the formation of new, more complex molecules. Molecular clouds are regions of intense star formation.

In composition, interstellar particles consist of a refractory core (silicates, graphite, silicon carbide, iron) and a shell of volatile elements (H, H 2, O, OH, H 2 O). There are also very small silicate and graphite particles (without a shell) of the order of hundredths of a micron in size. According to the hypothesis of F. Hoyle and C. Wickramasing, a significant proportion of interstellar dust, up to 80%, consists of bacteria.

The interstellar medium is continuously replenished due to the influx of matter during the shedding of stellar shells in the later stages of their evolution (especially during supernova explosions). On the other hand, it itself is the source of the formation of stars and planetary systems.

Dust matter in interplanetary and near-Earth space

Interplanetary dust is formed mainly during the decay of periodic comets, as well as during the crushing of asteroids. Dust formation occurs continuously, and the process of dust grains falling onto the Sun under the influence of radiation braking also continues continuously. As a result, a constantly renewed dust environment is formed, filling interplanetary space and being in a state of dynamic equilibrium. Its density, although higher than in interstellar space, is still very small: 10 -23 -10 -21 g/cm 3 . However, it noticeably scatters sunlight. When it is scattered on particles of interplanetary dust, optical phenomena such as zodiacal light, the Fraunhofer component of the solar corona, the zodiacal band, and counter-radiance arise. The zodiacal component of the glow of the night sky is also determined by the scattering of dust particles.

Dust matter in the Solar System is highly concentrated towards the ecliptic. In the ecliptic plane, its density decreases approximately in proportion to the distance from the Sun. Near the Earth, as well as near others major planets The concentration of dust increases under the influence of their attraction. Interplanetary dust particles move around the Sun in contracting (due to radiation braking) elliptical orbits. Their speed of movement is several tens of kilometers per second. When colliding with solid bodies, including spacecraft, they cause noticeable surface erosion.

Colliding with the Earth and burning up in its atmosphere at an altitude of about 100 km, cosmic particles cause the well-known phenomenon of meteors (or “shooting stars”). On this basis, they are called meteoric particles, and the entire complex of interplanetary dust is often called meteoric matter or meteor dust. Most meteor particles are loose bodies of cometary origin. Among them, two groups of particles are distinguished: porous particles with a density of 0.1 to 1 g/cm 3 and so-called dust lumps or fluffy flakes, reminiscent of snowflakes with a density of less than 0.1 g/cm 3 . In addition, denser asteroid-type particles with a density of more than 1 g/cm 3 are less common. At high altitudes, loose meteors predominate; at altitudes below 70 km, asteroid particles with medium density 3.5 g/cm 3 .

As a result of the fragmentation of loose meteoroids of cometary origin at altitudes of 100-400 km from the Earth's surface, a fairly dense dust shell is formed, the dust concentration in which is tens of thousands of times higher than in interplanetary space. Scattering sunlight in this shell it causes the twilight glow of the sky when the sun dips below the horizon below 100º.

The largest and smallest meteoroids of the asteroid type reach the Earth's surface. The first (meteorites) reach the surface due to the fact that they do not have time to completely collapse and burn when flying through the atmosphere; the latter - due to the fact that their interaction with the atmosphere, due to their insignificant mass (at a sufficiently high density), occurs without noticeable destruction.

The fall of cosmic dust onto the Earth's surface

While meteorites have long been in the field of view of science, cosmic dust has not attracted the attention of scientists for a long time.

The concept of cosmic (meteor) dust was introduced into science in the second half of the 19th century, when the famous Dutch polar explorer A.E. Nordenskjöld discovered dust of supposed cosmic origin on the surface of ice. Around the same time, in the mid-1970s, Murray (I. Murray) described rounded magnetite particles found in deep-sea sediments Pacific Ocean, the origin of which was also associated with cosmic dust. However, these assumptions were not confirmed for a long time, remaining within the framework of the hypothesis. At the same time, the scientific study of cosmic dust progressed extremely slowly, as pointed out by Academician V.I. Vernadsky in 1941.

He first drew attention to the problem of cosmic dust in 1908 and then returned to it in 1932 and 1941. In the work “On the Study of Cosmic Dust” V.I. Vernadsky wrote: “... The earth is connected with cosmic bodies and with outer space not only by exchange different forms energy. It is closely connected with them materially... Among the material bodies falling onto our planet from outer space, predominantly meteorites and cosmic dust, which is usually included in them, are available to our direct study... Meteorites - and at least in some part, the fireballs associated with them are always unexpected for us in their manifestation... Cosmic dust is a different matter: everything indicates that it falls continuously, and perhaps this continuity of fall exists at every point of the biosphere, distributed evenly throughout planet. It is surprising that this phenomenon, one might say, has not been studied at all and completely disappears from scientific records.» .

Considering the largest known meteorites in this article, V.I. Vernadsky pays special attention to the Tunguska meteorite, the search for which was carried out by L.A. under his direct supervision. Sandpiper. Large fragments of the meteorite were not found, and in connection with this V.I. Vernadsky makes the assumption that he “... is a new phenomenon in the annals of science - the penetration into the region of earth's gravity not of a meteorite, but of a huge cloud or clouds of cosmic dust moving at cosmic speed» .

To the same topic V.I. Vernadsky returned in February 1941 in his report “On the need to organize scientific work on cosmic dust” at a meeting of the Committee on Meteorites of the USSR Academy of Sciences. In this document, along with theoretical reflections on the origin and role of cosmic dust in geology and especially in the geochemistry of the Earth, he substantiates in detail the program for searching and collecting material from cosmic dust that has fallen on the surface of the Earth, with the help of which, he believes, a number of problems can be solved scientific cosmogony about the qualitative composition and “dominant importance of cosmic dust in the structure of the Universe.” It is necessary to study cosmic dust and take it into account as a source of cosmic energy, continuously brought to us from the surrounding space. The mass of cosmic dust, noted V.I. Vernadsky, has atomic and other nuclear energy, which is not indifferent in its existence in Space and in its manifestation on our planet. To understand the role of cosmic dust, he emphasized, it is necessary to have sufficient material for its study. Organizing the collection of cosmic dust and scientific research of the collected material is the first task facing scientists. Promising for this purpose are V.I. Vernadsky considers snow and glacial natural plates of high-mountain and arctic regions remote from human industrial activity.

The Great Patriotic War and the death of V.I. Vernadsky, prevented the implementation of this program. However, it became relevant in the second half of the twentieth century and contributed to the intensification of research into meteoric dust in our country.

In 1946, on the initiative of Academician V.G. Fesenkov organized an expedition to the mountains of the Trans-Ili Ala-Tau (Northern Tien Shan), the task of which was to study solid particles with magnetic properties in snow deposits. The snow sampling site was chosen on the left side moraine of the Tuyuk-Su glacier (altitude 3500 m); most of the ridges surrounding the moraine were covered with snow, which reduced the possibility of contamination by earthly dust. It was also removed from sources of dust associated with human activity, and was surrounded on all sides by mountains.

The method for collecting cosmic dust in the snow cover was as follows. From a strip 0.5 m wide to a depth of 0.75 m, snow was collected with a wooden shovel, transferred and melted in an aluminum container, poured into a glass container, where the solid fraction precipitated within 5 hours. Then upper part the water was drained, a new batch of melted snow was added, etc. As a result, 85 buckets of snow were melted total area 1.5 m2, volume 1.1 m3. The resulting sediment was transferred to the laboratory of the Institute of Astronomy and Physics of the Academy of Sciences of the Kazakh SSR, where the water was evaporated and subjected to further analysis. However, since these studies did not give a definite result, N.B. Divari came to the conclusion that for snow sampling in this case it is better to use either very old compacted firns or open glaciers.

Significant progress in the study of cosmic meteor dust came in the middle of the twentieth century, when, in connection with the launches of artificial Earth satellites, direct methods for studying meteor particles were developed - their direct registration by the number of collisions with a spacecraft or various types of traps (installed on satellites and geophysical rockets, launched to an altitude of several hundred kilometers). Analysis of the obtained materials made it possible, in particular, to detect the presence of a dust shell around the Earth at altitudes from 100 to 300 km above the surface (as discussed above).

Along with the study of dust using spacecraft, particles were studied in the lower atmosphere and various natural reservoirs: in high-mountain snow, in the Antarctic ice sheet, in the polar ice of the Arctic, in peat deposits and deep-sea silt. The latter are observed mainly in the form of so-called “magnetic balls,” that is, dense spherical particles with magnetic properties. The size of these particles is from 1 to 300 microns, weight from 10 -11 to 10 -6 g.

Another direction is related to the study of astrophysical and geophysical phenomena associated with cosmic dust; this includes various optical phenomena: the glow of the night sky, noctilucent clouds, zodiacal light, counter-radiance, etc. Their study also allows one to obtain important data about cosmic dust. Meteor studies were included in the program of the International Geophysical Year 1957-1959 and 1964-1965.

As a result of these works, estimates of the total influx of cosmic dust onto the Earth's surface were refined. According to T.N. Nazarova, I.S. Astapovich and V.V. Fedynsky, the total influx of cosmic dust to Earth reaches up to 10 7 tons/year. According to A.N. Simonenko and B.Yu. Levin (according to data for 1972), the influx of cosmic dust to the surface of the Earth is 10 2 -10 9 t/year, according to other, more recent studies - 10 7 -10 8 t/year.

Research into meteor dust collection continued. At the suggestion of Academician A.P. Vinogradov, during the 14th Antarctic expedition (1968-1969), work was carried out to identify patterns of spatiotemporal distributions of extraterrestrial matter deposition in the Antarctic ice sheet. The surface layer of snow cover was studied in the areas of Molodezhnaya, Mirny, Vostok stations and in a section of about 1400 km between Mirny and Vostok stations. Snow sampling was carried out from pits 2-5 m deep at points remote from polar stations. The samples were packed in plastic bags or special plastic containers. Under stationary conditions, samples were melted in glass or aluminum containers. The resulting water was filtered using a collapsible funnel through membrane filters (pore size 0.7 μm). The filters were moistened with glycerol and the number of microparticles was determined in transmitted light at a magnification of 350X.

We also studied polar ice, bottom sediments of the Pacific Ocean, sedimentary rocks, salt deposits. At the same time, the search for melted microscopic spherical particles, which are quite easily identified among other dust fractions, has proven to be a promising direction.

In 1962, the Commission on Meteorites and Cosmic Dust was created at the Siberian Branch of the USSR Academy of Sciences, headed by Academician V.S. Sobolev, which existed until 1990 and the creation of which was initiated by the problem Tunguska meteorite. Work on the study of cosmic dust was carried out under the leadership of Academician of the Russian Academy of Medical Sciences N.V. Vasilyeva.

When assessing cosmic dust fallout, along with other natural tablets, we used peat composed of brown sphagnum moss according to the method of Tomsk scientist Yu.A. Lvov. This moss is quite widespread in the middle zone of the globe; it receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere and has the ability to preserve it in the layer that was the surface when dust hit it. Layer-by-layer stratification and dating of peat allows us to give a retrospective assessment of its loss. Both spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns and the microelement composition of the peat substrate were studied - a function of the dust it contained.

The method for isolating cosmic dust from peat is as follows. In an area of ​​raised sphagnum bog, a site with a flat surface and a peat deposit composed of brown sphagnum moss (Sphagnum fuscum Klingr) is selected. Shrubs are cut from its surface at the level of the moss turf. A pit is laid to a depth of 60 cm, an area of ​​the required size is marked at its side (for example, 10x10 cm), then a column of peat is exposed on two or three sides, cut into layers of 3 cm each, which are packed in plastic bags. The upper 6 layers (feather) are considered together and can serve to determine age characteristics according to the method of E.Ya. Muldiyarov and E.D. Lapshina. Each layer is washed under laboratory conditions through a sieve with a mesh diameter of 250 microns for at least 5 minutes. The humus with mineral particles that has passed through the sieve is allowed to settle until the sediment completely falls out, then the sediment is poured into a Petri dish, where it is dried. Packed in tracing paper, the dry sample is convenient for transportation and for further study. Under appropriate conditions, the sample is ashed in a crucible and muffle furnace for an hour at a temperature of 500-600 degrees. The ash residue is weighed and subjected to either inspection under a binocular microscope at 56 times magnification to identify spherical particles measuring 7-100 microns or more, or subjected to other types of analysis. Because This moss receives mineral nutrition only from the atmosphere, then its ash component may be a function of the cosmic dust included in its composition.

Thus, studies in the area of ​​the fall of the Tunguska meteorite, many hundreds of kilometers away from sources of technogenic pollution, made it possible to estimate the influx of spherical particles with a size of 7-100 microns or more onto the Earth’s surface. The upper layers of peat provided an opportunity to estimate global aerosol deposition during the study period; layers dating back to 1908 - substances of the Tunguska meteorite; lower (pre-industrial) layers - cosmic dust. The influx of cosmic microspherules onto the Earth's surface is estimated at (2-4)·10 3 t/year, and in general of cosmic dust - 1.5·10 9 t/year. Analytical methods of analysis, in particular neutron activation, were used to determine the trace element composition of cosmic dust. According to these data, the following falls annually onto the Earth's surface from outer space (t/year): iron (2·10 6), cobalt (150), scandium (250).

Of great interest in terms of the above studies are the works of E.M. Kolesnikova and her co-authors, who discovered isotope anomalies in the peat of the area where the Tunguska meteorite fell, dating back to 1908 and speaking, on the one hand, in favor of the comet hypothesis of this phenomenon, on the other hand, shedding light on the cometary substance that fell on the surface of the Earth.

Most full review problems of the Tunguska meteorite, including its substance, for 2000 the monograph by V.A. Bronshten. The latest data on the substance of the Tunguska meteorite were reported and discussed at the International Conference “100 Years of the Tunguska Phenomenon”, Moscow, June 26-28, 2008. Despite the progress made in the study of cosmic dust, a number of problems still remain unresolved.

Sources of metascientific knowledge about cosmic dust

Along with the data received modern methods research, the information contained in extra-scientific sources is of great interest: “Letters of the Mahatmas”, the Teaching of Living Ethics, letters and works of E.I. Roerich (in particular, in her work “Study of Human Properties,” which provides an extensive program of scientific research for many years to come).

So in a letter from Koot Hoomi in 1882 to the editor of the influential English-language newspaper “Pioneer” A.P. Sinnett (the original letter is kept in the British Museum) provides the following data on cosmic dust:

- “High above our earth’s surface, the air is saturated and space is filled with magnetic and meteoric dust that does not even belong to our solar system”;

“The snow, especially in our northern regions, is full of meteoric iron and magnetic particles, deposits of the latter are found even at the bottom of the oceans.” “Millions of such meteors and the finest particles reach us every year and every day”;

- “every atmospheric change on Earth and all perturbations occur from the combined magnetism” of two large “mass” - the Earth and meteoric dust;

There is "the terrestrial magnetic attraction of meteoric dust and the direct effect of the latter on sudden changes in temperature, especially in relation to heat and cold";

Because “our earth with all the other planets is rushing through space, it receives more of the cosmic dust on its northern hemisphere than on the southern”; “...this explains the quantitative predominance of continents in the northern hemisphere and the greater abundance of snow and dampness”;

- “The heat that the earth receives from the rays of the sun is, to the greatest extent, only a third, if not less, of the amount it receives directly from meteors”;

- “Powerful accumulations of meteoric matter” in interstellar space lead to a distortion of the observed intensity of starlight and, consequently, to a distortion of distances to stars obtained by photometry.

A number of these provisions were ahead of the science of that time and were confirmed by subsequent research. Thus, studies of twilight atmospheric glow carried out in the 30-50s. XX century, showed that if at altitudes less than 100 km the glow is determined by the scattering of sunlight in a gaseous (air) medium, then at altitudes of more than 100 km the predominant role is played by scattering on dust particles. The first observations made with the help of artificial satellites led to the discovery of the dust shell of the Earth at altitudes of several hundred kilometers, as indicated in the mentioned letter from Kut Hoomi. Of particular interest are data on distortions of distances to stars obtained photometrically. Essentially, this was an indication of the presence of interstellar absorption, discovered in 1930 by Trempler, which is rightfully considered one of the most important astronomical discoveries of the 20th century. Taking into account interstellar absorption led to a reestimation of the astronomical distance scale and, as a consequence, to a change in the scale of the visible Universe.

Some provisions of this letter - about the influence of cosmic dust on processes in the atmosphere, in particular on the weather - have not yet found scientific confirmation. Further study is needed here.

Let us turn to another source of metascientific knowledge - the Teaching of Living Ethics, created by E.I. Roerich and N.K. Roerich in collaboration with the Himalayan Teachers - Mahatmas in the 20-30s of the twentieth century. The books of Living Ethics, originally published in Russian, have now been translated and published in many languages ​​of the world. They pay great attention to scientific problems. In this case, we will be interested in everything related to cosmic dust.

The problem of cosmic dust, in particular its influx to the surface of the Earth, is given quite a lot of attention in the Teaching of Living Ethics.

“Pay attention to high places exposed to winds from snowy peaks. At the level of twenty-four thousand feet special deposits of meteoric dust can be observed" (1927-1929). “Aerolites are not studied enough, and even less attention is paid to cosmic dust on eternal snow and glaciers. Meanwhile, the Cosmic Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks" (1930-1931). “Meteor dust is inaccessible to the eye, but produces very significant precipitation” (1932-1933). “In the purest place, the purest snow is saturated with earthly and cosmic dust - this is how space is filled even with rough observation” (1936).

Much attention is paid to issues of cosmic dust in the “Cosmological Records” of E.I. Roerich (1940). It should be borne in mind that E.I. Roerich closely followed the development of astronomy and was aware of its latest achievements; she critically assessed some theories of that time (20-30 years of the last century), for example in the field of cosmology, and her ideas have been confirmed in our time. The Teaching of Living Ethics and Cosmological Records of E.I. Roerich contain a number of provisions about those processes that are associated with the fall of cosmic dust on the surface of the Earth and which can be summarized as follows:

In addition to meteorites, material particles of cosmic dust constantly fall onto the Earth, which bring in cosmic matter that carries information about the Distant Worlds of outer space;

Cosmic dust changes the composition of soils, snow, natural waters and plants;

This especially applies to the locations of natural ores, which not only act as unique magnets that attract cosmic dust, but we should also expect some differentiation depending on the type of ore: “So iron and other metals attract meteors, especially when the ores are in their natural state and are not devoid of cosmic magnetism”;

Much attention in the Teaching of Living Ethics is paid to mountain peaks, which, according to E.I. Roerich “...are the greatest magnetic stations.” “...The Cosmic Ocean draws its rhythm on the peaks”;

The study of cosmic dust can lead to the discovery of new minerals that have not yet been discovered by modern science, in particular, a metal that has properties that help store vibrations with the distant worlds of outer space;

By studying cosmic dust, new types of microbes and bacteria may be discovered;

But what is especially important is that the Teaching of Living Ethics opens a new page of scientific knowledge - the impact of cosmic dust on living organisms, including humans and their energy. It can have various effects on the human body and some processes on the physical and, especially, subtle planes.

This information is beginning to be confirmed in modern scientific research. So in recent years Complex organic compounds were discovered on cosmic dust particles and some scientists started talking about cosmic microbes. In this regard, the work on bacterial paleontology carried out at the Institute of Paleontology of the Russian Academy of Sciences is of particular interest. In these works, in addition to terrestrial rocks, meteorites were studied. It has been shown that microfossils found in meteorites represent traces of the vital activity of microorganisms, some of which are similar to cyanobacteria. In a number of studies, it was possible to experimentally demonstrate the positive effect of cosmic matter on plant growth and substantiate the possibility of its influence on the human body.

The authors of the Teachings of Living Ethics strongly recommend organizing constant monitoring of cosmic dust fallout. And as its natural reservoir, use glacial and snow deposits in the mountains at an altitude of over 7 thousand m. The Roerichs, living for many years in the Himalayas, they dream of creating a scientific station there. In a letter dated October 13, 1930, E.I. Roerich writes: “The station must develop into a City of Knowledge. We wish in this City to give a synthesis of achievements, therefore all areas of science should subsequently be represented in it... The study of new cosmic rays, giving humanity new, most valuable energies, only possible at altitudes, for all the subtlest and most valuable and powerful lies in the purer layers of the atmosphere. Also, aren’t all the meteoric precipitations deposited on the snowy peaks and carried into the valleys by mountain streams worthy of attention?” .

Conclusion

The study of cosmic dust has now become an independent field modern astrophysics and geophysics. This problem is especially relevant since meteoric dust is a source of cosmic matter and energy that is continuously brought to Earth from outer space and actively influences geochemical and geophysical processes, as well as having a unique effect on biological objects, including humans. These processes have not yet been studied much. In the study of cosmic dust, a number of provisions contained in the sources of metascientific knowledge have not been properly applied. Meteor dust manifests itself in terrestrial conditions not only as a phenomenon of the physical world, but also as matter that carries the energy of outer space, including worlds of other dimensions and other states of matter. Taking these provisions into account requires the development of a completely new method for studying meteoric dust. But the most important task remains the collection and analysis of cosmic dust in various natural reservoirs.

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: Should not be when cosmic speeds, but there is.
If a car is driving along the road and another one butts it in the ass, then it will only faintly click with its teeth. What if at the same speed there is oncoming traffic or to the side? There is a difference.
Now, let’s say that the same thing happens in space, the Earth rotates in one direction and the garbage of the Phaeton or something else spins along with it. Then there may be a soft descent.

I was surprised by the very large number of observations of comet appearances in the 19th century. Here are some statistics:

Clickable

Meteorite with fossilized remains of living organisms. The conclusion is that these are fragments from the planet. Phaeton?

huan_de_vsad in his article Symbols of medals of Peter the Great indicated a very interesting excerpt from the Letter of 1818, where, among other things, there is a small note about the comet of 1680:

In other words, it was this comet that a certain Wiston attributed to the body that caused the Flood described in the Bible. Those. in this theory, the global flood occurred in 2345 BC. It should be noted that there are a lot of datings associated with the global flood.

This comet was observed from December 1680 to February 1681 (7188). It was brightest in January.

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5elena4 : “Almost in the middle... of the sky above Prechistensky Boulevard, surrounded, sprinkled on all sides with stars, but differing from all others by its proximity to the earth, white light and long, raised tail, stood a huge bright comet of 1812, the same comet that foreshadowed, as they said, all sorts of horrors and the end of the world.”

L. Tolstoy on behalf of Pierre Bezukhov, passing through Moscow (“War and Peace”):

Upon entering Arbat Square, a huge expanse of starry dark sky opened up to Pierre’s eyes. Almost in the middle of this sky above Prechistensky Boulevard, surrounded and sprinkled on all sides with stars, but differing from everyone else in its proximity to the earth, white light, and long, raised tail, stood a huge bright comet of 1812, the same comet that foreshadowed , as they said, all sorts of horrors and the end of the world. But in Pierre this bright star with a long radiant tail did not arouse any terrible feeling. Opposite Pierre, joyfully, eyes wet with tears, looked at this bright star, which, as if, with inexpressible speed, flying through immeasurable spaces along a parabolic line, suddenly, like an arrow pierced into the ground, stuck here in one place chosen by it, in the black sky, and stopped, energetically raising her tail up, glowing and playing with her white light between countless other twinkling stars. It seemed to Pierre that this star fully corresponded to what was in his soul, which had blossomed towards a new life, softened and encouraged.

L. N. Tolstoy. "War and Peace". Volume II. Part V. Chapter XXII

The comet hung over Eurasia for 290 days and is considered the largest comet in history.

Wiki calls it the "1811 comet" because it passed its perihelion that year. And in the next one it was very clearly visible from the Earth. Everyone especially mentions the excellent grapes and wine that year. The harvest is associated with a comet. “The current flowed from the comet” - from “Eugene Onegin”.

In the work of V. S. Pikul “To Each His Own”:

“Champagne surprised the Russians with the poverty of its inhabitants and the wealth of its wine cellars. Napoleon was still preparing a campaign against Moscow when the world was stunned by the appearance of a bright comet, under the sign of which Champagne in 1811 produced an unprecedented harvest of large, juicy grapes. Now the effervescent “vin de la comete” Russian Cossacks; They were carried out in buckets and given to exhausted horses to drink - to cheer them up: - Lakkay, sickness! It's not far from Paris...
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This is an engraving dated 1857, that is, the artist depicted not the impression of impending danger, but the danger itself. And it seems to me that the picture shows a cataclysm. The catastrophic events on Earth that were associated with the appearance of comets are presented. Napoleon's soldiers took the appearance of this comet as a bad sign. Moreover, it really hung in the sky for an outrageously long time. According to some reports, up to one and a half years.

It turned out that the diameter of the comet's head - the nucleus together with the diffuse foggy atmosphere surrounding it - the coma - is greater than the diameter of the Sun (to this day, comet 1811 I remains the largest of all known). The length of its tail reached 176 million kilometers. The famous English astronomer W. Herschel describes the shape of the tail as “... an inverted empty cone of a yellowish color, making a sharp contrast with the bluish-greenish tone of the head.” To some observers, the comet's color appeared reddish, especially at the end of the third week of October, when the comet was very bright and shone in the sky all night.

At the same time, North America was shaking powerful earthquake in the New Madrid area. As far as I understand, this is practically the center of the continent. Experts still don’t understand what triggered that earthquake. According to one version, it occurred due to the gradual rise of the continent, which had become lighter after the melting of the glaciers (?!)
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Very interesting information in this post: The real cause of the 1824 flood in St. Petersburg. It can be assumed that such winds in 1824 were caused by the fall of a large body or bodies, asteroids, somewhere in a desert area, say, Africa.
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In A. Stepanenko ( chispa1707 ) there is information that mass insanity in the Middle Ages in Europe was caused by poisonous water from dust falling from the tail of a comet onto the Earth. Can be found at this video
Or in this article
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The following facts also indirectly indicate the opacity of the atmosphere and the onset of cold weather in Europe:

The 17th century is marked as the Little Ice Age and also had temperate periods with good summers with periods of extreme heat.
However, winter receives a lot of attention in the book. In the years from 1691 to 1698, winters were harsh and hungry for Scandinavia. , Before 1800, famine was the greatest fear for common man. The winter of 1709 was exceptionally severe. It was the beauty of a cold wave. The temperature dropped to the extreme. Fahrenheit experimented with thermometers and Crookius made all the temperature measurements in Delft. "Holland suffered greatly. But especially Germany and France were hit by cold, with temperatures down to -30 degrees and the population suffered the greatest famine since the Middle Ages.
..........
Bayusman also says that he wondered whether he would consider 1550 to be the beginning of the Little Ice Age. In the end he decided that it happened in 1430. A series of cold winters begins this year. After some temperature fluctuations, the Little Ice Age begins from the end of the 16th century to the end of the 17th century, ending around 1800.
***

So could soil fall out of space and turn into clay? This information will try to answer this question:

Every day, 400 tons of cosmic dust and 10 tons of meteorite matter fall to Earth from space. This is according to the short reference book “Alpha and Omega” published in Tallinn in 1991. Considering that the Earth's surface area is 511 million sq. km., of which 361 million sq. km. - this is the surface of the oceans, we don’t notice it.

According to other data:
Until now, scientists did not know the exact amount of dust that falls to Earth. It was believed that every day from 400 kg to 100 tons of this space debris falls on our planet. In recent studies, scientists were able to calculate the amount of sodium in our atmosphere, and obtained accurate data. Since the amount of sodium in the atmosphere is equivalent to the amount of dust from space, it turned out that every day the Earth receives about 60 tons of additional pollution.

That is, this process is present, but currently the fallout occurs in minimal quantities, insufficient to cover buildings.
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The theory of panspermia, according to scientists from Cardiff, is supported by an analysis of samples of material from comet Wild-2 collected by the Stardust spacecraft. He showed the presence of a number of complex hydrocarbon molecules in them. In addition, studying the composition of comet Tempel-1 using the Deep Impact probe showed the presence of a mixture of organic compounds and clay in it. It is believed that the latter could serve as a catalyst for the formation of complex organic compounds from simple hydrocarbons.

Clay is a likely catalyst for the transformation of simple organic molecules into complex biopolymers on the early Earth. However, now Wickramasingh and his colleagues claim that the total volume of clayey environment on comets, favorable for the emergence of life, is many times greater than that of our own planet (publication in the international astrobiological journal International Journal of Astrobiology).

According to new estimates, on the early Earth the favorable environment was limited to a volume of about 10 thousand cubic kilometers, and a single comet with a diameter of 20 kilometers could provide a “cradle” for life of about one tenth of its volume. If we take into account the contents of all the comets of the Solar System (and there are billions of them), then the size of the suitable environment will be 1012 times greater than that of the Earth.

Of course, not all scientists agree with the conclusions of Vikramasingh's group. For example, American comet expert Michael Mumma from NASA Goddard Space Flight Center (GSFC, Maryland) believes that there is no way to talk about the presence of clay particles in all comets without exception (in For example, they are not present in the samples of material from comet Wild 2 delivered to Earth by the NASA Stardust probe in January 2006).

The following notes appear regularly in the press:

Thousands of drivers in the Zemplinsky region, which borders the Transcarpathian region, found their cars covered in a thin film of yellow dust in parking lots on Thursday morning. We are talking about the areas of the cities of Snina, Humennoe, Trebišov, Medzilaborce, Michalovce and Stropkov vranovski.
This dust and sand got into the clouds of eastern Slovakia, says Ivan Garčar, press secretary of the Hydrometeorological Institute of Slovakia. Strong winds in western Libya and Egypt, according to him, began on Tuesday, May 28. A large amount of dust and sand got into the air. Such air currents prevailed over the Mediterranean Sea, near southern Italy and northwestern Greece.
The next day, one part penetrated deeper into the Balkans (eg Serbia) and northern Hungary, while the second part of various dust flows from Greece returned to Turkey.
Such meteorological situations of sand and dust transfer from the Sahara are very rare in Europe, so there is no need to say that this phenomenon may become an annual occurrence.

Cases of sand loss are far from uncommon:

Residents of many regions of Crimea noted today an unusual phenomenon: heavy rain was accompanied by small grains of sand of various colors - from gray to red. As it turned out, this is a consequence of dust storms in the Sahara Desert, which were brought by the southern cyclone. Rains with sand occurred, in particular, over Simferopol, Sevastopol, and the Black Sea region.

An unusual snowfall occurred in the Saratov region and the city itself: in some areas, residents noticed yellow-brown precipitation. Meteorologists' explanations: “Nothing supernatural is happening. Now the weather in our region is due to the influence of a cyclone that came from the southwest to our region. The air mass comes to us from North Africa through the Mediterranean and Black Sea saturated with moisture. The air mass, dusty from the Sahara regions, received a portion of sand, and, enriched with moisture, is now watering not only the European territory of Russia, but also the Crimean Peninsula.”

Let us add that colored snow has already caused a stir in several Russian cities. For example, in 2007, unusual precipitation orange color seen by residents of the Omsk region. At their request, an examination was carried out, which showed that the snow was safe, it just had an excessive concentration of iron, which caused the unusual color. That same winter, yellowish snow was seen in the Tyumen region, and soon gray snow fell in Gorno-Altaisk. Analyzes of Altai snow revealed the presence of earth dust in the sediments. Experts explained that this is a consequence of dust storms in Kazakhstan.
Note that snow can also be pink: for example, in 2006, snow the color of a ripe watermelon fell in Colorado. Eyewitnesses claimed that it also tasted like watermelon. Similar reddish snow is found high in the mountains and in the polar regions of the Earth, and its color is due to the massive proliferation of one of the types of algae, Chlamydomonas.

Red rains
They are mentioned by ancient scientists and writers, for example, Homer, Plutarch, and medieval ones, such as Al-Ghazen. The most famous rains of this kind fell:
1803, February - in Italy;
1813, February - in Calabria;
1838, April - in Algeria;
1842, March - in Greece;
1852, March - in Lyon;
1869, March - in Sicily;
1870, February - in Rome;
1887, June - in Fontainebleau.

They are also observed outside Europe, for example, on the Cape Verde Islands, on the Cape of Good Hope, etc. Blood rains occur from an admixture of red dust, consisting of tiny red-colored organisms, to ordinary rains. The homeland of this dust is Africa, where it is blown to great heights by strong winds and transported by upper air currents to Europe. Hence its other name - “trade wind dust”.

Black rains
They appear due to the admixture of volcanic or cosmic dust to ordinary rains. On November 9, 1819, black rain fell in Montreal, Canada. A similar incident was also observed on August 14, 1888 at the Cape of Good Hope.

White (milky) rains
They are observed in places where chalk rocks are located. Chalk dust is carried upward and colors raindrops milky white.
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Everything is explained by dust storms and raised masses of sand and dust into the atmosphere. Just a question: why are places where sand falls so selective? And how is this sand transported thousands of kilometers without falling out along the way from the places where it rises? Even if a dust storm kicked up tons of sand into the sky, it should start falling out as soon as the storm or front moves.
Or maybe the fallout of sandy and dusty soils (which we see in the idea of ​​sandy loam and clay covering the cultural layers of the 19th century) continues? But only in incomparably smaller quantities? And earlier there were moments when the fall was so large and fast that it covered the territory for meters. Then, under the rains, this dust turned into clay, sandy loam. And where there was a lot of rain, this mass turned into mudflows. Why isn't this in history? Maybe because people considered this phenomenon to be ordinary? The same dust storm. Now there is television, the Internet, many newspapers. Information becomes public quickly. Previously, this was more difficult. The publicity of phenomena and events was not on such an informational scale.
For now this is just a version, because... there is no direct evidence. But maybe one of the readers will offer some more information?
***

Supernova SN2010jl Photo: NASA/STScI

For the first time, astronomers observed in real time the formation of cosmic dust in the immediate vicinity of a supernova, which allowed them to explain this mysterious phenomenon, which occurs in two stages. The process begins soon after the explosion, but continues for many years, the researchers write in the journal Nature.

We are all made of stardust, of the elements that are building material for new celestial bodies. Astronomers have long assumed that this dust is formed when stars explode. But how exactly this happens and how dust particles are not destroyed in the vicinity of galaxies where active activity is taking place has remained a mystery until now.

This question was first clarified by observations made using the Very Large Telescope at the Paranal Observatory in northern Chile. An international research team led by Christa Gall from the Danish University of Aarhus examined a supernova that occurred in 2010 in a galaxy 160 million light years away. Researchers spent months and early years observing catalog number SN2010jl in visible and infrared light using the X-Shooter spectrograph.

“When we combined the observational data, we were able to make the first measurement of the absorption of different wavelengths in the dust around the supernova,” Gall explains. “This allowed us to learn more about this dust than was previously known.” This made it possible to study in more detail the different sizes of dust grains and their formation.

Dust in the immediate vicinity of a supernova occurs in two stages. Photo: © ESO/M. Kornmesser

As it turns out, dust particles larger than a thousandth of a millimeter form in the dense material around the star relatively quickly. The sizes of these particles are surprisingly large for cosmic dust grains, making them resistant to destruction by galactic processes. “Our evidence of the formation of large dust particles shortly after the supernova explosion means that there must be a rapid and effective way their formation," adds co-author Jens Hjorth from the University of Copenhagen. "But we don't yet understand exactly how this happens."

However, astronomers already have a theory based on their observations. Based on it, dust formation occurs in 2 stages:

1. The star pushes material into its surroundings shortly before exploding. Then the supernova shock wave comes and spreads, behind which a cool and dense shell of gas is created - environment, into which dust particles from previously ejected material can condense and grow.
2. In the second stage, several hundred days after the supernova explosion, material that was ejected by the explosion itself is added and an accelerated process of dust formation occurs.

“Recently, astronomers have discovered a lot of dust in the remnants of supernovae that arose after the explosion. However, they also found evidence of a small amount of dust that actually originated from the supernova itself. New observations explain how this apparent contradiction may be resolved,” writes Christa Gall in conclusion.

Many people admire with delight the beautiful spectacle of the starry sky, one of nature's greatest creations. In a clear autumn sky, it is clearly visible how a faintly luminous stripe runs across the entire sky, called Milky Way, having irregular outlines with different widths and brightness. If we examine the Milky Way, which forms our Galaxy, through a telescope, it will turn out that this bright strip breaks up into many faintly luminous stars, which for the naked eye merge into a continuous glow. It is now established that the Milky Way consists not only of stars and star clusters, but also of gas and dust clouds.

Cosmic dust occurs in many space objects, where a rapid outflow of matter occurs, accompanied by cooling. It manifests itself by infrared radiation hot Wolf-Rayet stars with a very powerful stellar wind, planetary nebulae, shells of supernovae and novae. Large quantity dust exists in the cores of many galaxies (for example, M82, NGC253), from which there is an intense outflow of gas. The influence of cosmic dust is most pronounced during the emission of a new star. A few weeks after the maximum brightness of the nova, a strong excess of radiation in the infrared appears in its spectrum, caused by the appearance of dust with a temperature of about K. Further