Mechanics

Kinematics formulas:

Kinematics

Mechanical movement

Mechanical movement is called a change in the position of a body (in space) relative to other bodies (over time).

Relativity of motion. Reference system

To describe the mechanical movement of a body (point), you need to know its coordinates at any moment in time. To determine coordinates, select reference body and connect with him coordinate system. Often the reference body is the Earth, which is associated with a rectangular Cartesian coordinate system. To determine the position of a point at any time, you must also set the beginning of the time count.

The coordinate system, the reference body with which it is associated, and the device for measuring time form reference system, relative to which the movement of the body is considered.

Material point

A body whose dimensions can be neglected under given motion conditions is called material point.

A body can be considered a material point if its dimensions are small compared to the distance it travels, or compared to the distances from it to other bodies.

Trajectory, path, movement

Trajectory of movement called the line along which the body moves. The path length is called the path traveled.Path– scalar physical quantity, can only be positive.

By moving is called a vector connecting the initial and end point trajectories.

The movement of a body in which all its points at a given moment in time move equally is called forward movement. To describe the translational motion of a body, it is enough to select one point and describe its movement.

A movement in which the trajectories of all points of the body are circles with centers on the same line and all planes of the circles are perpendicular to this line is called rotational movement.

Meter and second

To determine the coordinates of a body, you must be able to measure the distance on a straight line between two points. Any process of measuring a physical quantity consists of comparing the measured quantity with the unit of measurement of this quantity.

The unit of length in the International System of Units (SI) is meter. A meter is equal to approximately 1/40,000,000 of the earth's meridian. According to modern understanding, a meter is the distance that light travels in emptiness in 1/299,792,458 of a second.

To measure time, some periodically repeating process is selected. The SI unit of measurement of time is second. A second is equal to 9,192,631,770 periods of radiation from a cesium atom during the transition between two levels of the hyperfine structure of the ground state.

In SI, length and time are taken to be independent of other quantities. Such quantities are called main.

Instantaneous speed

To quantitatively characterize the process of body movement, the concept of movement speed is introduced.

Instant speed translational motion of a body at a moment of time t is the ratio of a very small displacement s to a small period of time t during which this movement occurred:

;
.

Instantaneous speed is a vector quantity. The instantaneous speed of movement is always directed tangentially to the trajectory in the direction of body movement.

The unit of speed is 1 m/s. A meter per second is equal to the speed of a rectilinearly and uniformly moving point, at which the point moves a distance of 1 m in 1 s.

The book presents in a concise and accessible form material on all sections of the Physics course program - from mechanics to physics atomic nucleus and elementary particles. For university students. Useful for reviewing the material covered and in preparing for exams in universities, technical schools, colleges, schools, preparatory departments and courses.

Elements of kinematics.
Models in mechanics
Material point
A body with mass whose dimensions can be neglected in this problem. A material point is an abstraction, but its introduction facilitates the solution of practical problems (for example, planets moving around the Sun can be taken as material points in calculations).

Material point system
An arbitrary macroscopic body or system of bodies can be mentally divided into small interacting parts, each of which is considered as a material point. Then the study of the motion of an arbitrary system of bodies is reduced to the study of a system of material points. In mechanics, they first study the movement of one material point, and then move on to the study of the movement of a system of material points.

Absolutely rigid body
A body that under no circumstances can be deformed and under all conditions the distance between two points (more precisely between two particles) of this body remains constant.

Absolutely elastic body
A body whose deformation obeys Hooke's law, and after the cessation of external forces takes on its original size and shape.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface 3
Introduction 4
Physics subject 4
Connection of physics with other sciences 5
1. PHYSICAL FOUNDATIONS OF MECHANICS 6
Mechanics and its structure 6
Chapter 1. Elements of kinematics 7
Models in mechanics. Kinematic equations of motion of a material point. Trajectory, path length, displacement vector. Speed. Acceleration and its components. Angular velocity. Angular acceleration.
Chapter 2 Dynamics of a material point and translational motion of a rigid body 14
Newton's first law. Weight. Strength. Newton's second and third laws. Law of conservation of momentum. Law of motion of the center of mass. Friction forces.
Chapter 3. Work and energy 19
Work, energy, power. Kinetic and potential energy. Relationship between conservative force and potential energy. Full energy. Law of conservation of energy. Graphical representation of energy. Absolutely elastic impact. Absolutely inelastic impact
Chapter 4. Solid mechanics 26
Moment of inertia. Steiner's theorem. Moment of power. Kinetic energy of rotation. Equation of dynamics of rotational motion of a rigid body. Angular momentum and the law of its conservation. Deformations of a solid body. Hooke's law. Relationship between strain and stress.
Chapter 5. Gravity. Elements of field theory 32
The law of universal gravitation. Characteristics of the gravitational field. Work in a gravitational field. Relationship between the gravitational field potential and its intensity. Cosmic speeds. Inertia forces.
Chapter 6. Elements of fluid mechanics 36
Pressure in liquid and gas. Continuity equation. Bernoulli's equation. Some applications of Bernoulli's equation. Viscosity (internal friction). Fluid flow regimes.
Chapter 7. Elements of the special theory of relativity 41
Mechanical principle of relativity. Galileo's transformations. Postulates of SRT. Lorentz transformations. Corollaries from Lorentz transformations (1). Corollaries from Lorentz transformations (2). Interval between events. Basic law of relativistic dynamics. Energy in relativistic dynamics.
2. FUNDAMENTALS OF MOLECULAR PHYSICS AND THERMODYNAMICS 48
Chapter 8. Molecular-kinetic theory of ideal gases 48
Physics sections: molecular physics and thermodynamics. Thermodynamics research method. Temperature scales. Ideal gas. Laws of Boyle-Mariotga, Avogadro, Dalton. Gay-Lussac's law. Clapeyron-Mendeleev equation. Basic equation of molecular kinetic theory. Maxwell's law on the velocity distribution of ideal gas molecules. Barometric formula. Boltzmann distribution. Average length free path of molecules. Some experiments confirming MCT. Transfer phenomena (1). Transfer phenomena (2).
Chapter 9. Fundamentals of Thermodynamics 60
Internal energy. Number of degrees of freedom. The law on the uniform distribution of energy across the degrees of freedom of molecules. The first law of thermodynamics. The work of a gas when its volume changes. Heat capacity (1). Heat capacity (2). Application of the first law of thermodynamics to isoprocesses (1). Application of the first law of thermodynamics to isoprocesses (2). Adiabatic process. Circular process (cycle). Reversible and irreversible processes. Entropy (1). Entropy (2). Second law of thermodynamics. Thermal engine. Carnot's theorem. Refrigeration machine. Carnot cycle.
Chapter 10. Real gases, liquids and solids 76
Forces and potential energy of intermolecular interaction. Van der Waals equation (equation of state real gases). Van der Waals isotherms and their analysis (1). Van der Waals isotherms and their analysis (2). Internal energy of real gas. Liquids and their description. Surface tension of liquids. Wetting. Capillary phenomena. Solids: crystalline and amorphous. Mono- and polycrystals. Crystallographic feature of crystals. Types of crystals according to physical characteristics. Defects in crystals. Evaporation, sublimation, melting and crystallization. Phase transitions. Status diagram. Triple point. Analysis of the experimental phase diagram.
3. ELECTRICITY AND ELECTROMAGNETISM 94
Chapter 11. Electrostatics 94
Electric charge and its properties. Law of conservation of charge. Coulomb's law. Electrostatic field strength. Electrostatic field strength lines. Tension vector flow. Superposition principle. Dipole field. Gauss's theorem for the electrostatic field in vacuum. Application of Gauss's theorem to the calculation of fields in vacuum (1). Application of Gauss's theorem to the calculation of fields in vacuum (2). Circulation of the electrostatic field strength vector. Electrostatic field potential. Potential difference. Superposition principle. The relationship between tension and potential. Equipotential surfaces. Calculation of potential difference from field strength. Types of dielectrics. Polarization of dielectrics. Polarization. Field strength in a dielectric. Electrical bias. Gauss's theorem for a field in a dielectric. Conditions at the interface between two dielectric media. Conductors in an electrostatic field. Electrical capacity. Flat capacitor. Connecting capacitors into batteries. Energy of a system of charges and a solitary conductor. Energy of a charged capacitor. Electrostatic field energy.
Chapter 12. Direct electric current 116
Electric current, strength and current density. Outside forces. Electromotive force (EMF). Voltage. Conductor resistance. Ohm's law for a homogeneous section in a closed circuit. Work and current power. Ohm's law for a non-uniform section of a circuit (generalized Ohm's law (GLO)). Kirchhoff's rules for branched chains.
Chapter 13. Electric currents in metals, vacuum and gases 124
The nature of current carriers in metals. Classical theory of electrical conductivity of metals (1). Classical theory of electrical conductivity of metals (2). The work function of electrons leaving metals. Emission phenomena. Ionization of gases. Non-self-sustaining gas discharge. Self-contained gas discharge.
Chapter 14. Magnetic field 130
Description magnetic field. Basic characteristics of the magnetic field. Magnetic induction lines. Superposition principle. Biot-Savart-Laplace law and its application. Ampere's law. Interaction of parallel currents. Magnetic constant. Units B and N. Magnetic field of a moving charge. The effect of a magnetic field on a moving charge. Movement of charged particles in
magnetic field. Theorem on the circulation of vector B. Magnetic fields of the solenoid and toroid. Magnetic induction vector flux. Gauss's theorem for field B. Work on moving a conductor and a circuit with current in a magnetic field.
Chapter 15. Electromagnetic induction 142
Faraday's experiments and consequences from them. Faraday's law (law of electromagnetic induction). Lenz's rule. Induction emf in stationary conductors. Rotation of the frame in a magnetic field. Eddy currents. Loop inductance. Self-induction. Currents when opening and closing a circuit. Mutual induction. Transformers. Magnetic field energy.
Chapter 16. Magnetic properties of matter 150
Magnetic moment of electrons. Dia- and paramagnets. Magnetization. Magnetic field in matter. The law of total current for the magnetic field in matter (the theorem on the circulation of vector B). Theorem on the circulation of the vector H. Conditions at the interface between two magnets. Ferromagnets and their properties.
Chapter 17. Basics of Maxwell's theory for the electromagnetic field 156
Vortex electric field. Bias current (1). Bias current (2). Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field.
4. OSCILLATIONS AND WAVES 160
Chapter 18. Mechanical and electromagnetic vibrations 160
Vibrations: free and harmonic. Period and frequency of oscillations. Rotating amplitude vector method. Mechanical harmonic vibrations. Harmonic oscillator. Pendulums: spring and mathematical. Physical pendulum. Free oscillations in an idealized oscillatory circuit. Equation of electromagnetic oscillations for an idealized circuit. Addition of harmonic vibrations of the same direction and the same frequency. Beating. Addition of mutually perpendicular vibrations. Free damped oscillations and their analysis. Free damped oscillations of a spring pendulum. Decrement of attenuation. Free damped oscillations in an electric oscillatory circuit. Quality factor of the oscillatory system. Forced mechanical vibrations. Forced electromagnetic oscillations. AC. Current through a resistor. Alternating current flowing through a coil of inductance L. Alternating current flowing through a capacitor of capacitance C. An alternating current circuit containing a resistor, an inductor and a capacitor connected in series. Voltage resonance (series resonance). Resonance of currents (parallel resonance). Power released in an alternating current circuit.
Chapter 19. Elastic waves 181
Wave process. Longitudinal and transverse waves. Harmonic wave and its description. Traveling wave equation. Phase speed. Wave equation. Superposition principle. Group speed. Wave interference. Standing waves. Sound waves. Doppler effect in acoustics. Receiving electromagnetic waves. Electromagnetic wave scale. Differential equation
electromagnetic waves. Consequences of Maxwell's theory. Electromagnetic energy flux density vector (Umov-Poinging vector). Electromagnetic field pulse.
5. OPTICS. QUANTUM NATURE OF RADIATION 194
Chapter 20. Elements of geometric optics 194
Basic laws of optics. Total reflection. Lenses, thin lenses, their characteristics. Thin lens formula. Optical power of the lens. Constructing images in lenses. Aberrations (errors) optical systems. Energy quantities in photometry. Light quantities in photometry.
Chapter 21. Interference of Light 202
Derivation of the laws of reflection and refraction of light based on wave theory. Coherence and monochromaticity of light waves. Interference of light. Some methods for observing light interference. Calculation of the interference pattern from two sources. Stripes of equal inclination (interference from a plane-parallel plate). Stripes of equal thickness (interference from a plate of variable thickness). Newton's rings. Some applications of interference (1). Some applications of interference (2).
Chapter 22. Diffraction of light 212
Huygens-Fresnel principle. Fresnel zone method (1). Fresnel zone method (2). Fresnel diffraction by round hole and disk. Fraunhofer diffraction by a slit (1). Fraunhofer diffraction by a slit (2). Fraunhofer diffraction by a diffraction grating. Diffraction by a spatial grating. Rayleigh criterion. Resolution of the spectral device.
Chapter 23. Interaction of electromagnetic waves with matter 221
Dispersion of light. Differences in diffraction and prismatic spectra. Normal and anomalous dispersion. Elementary electron theory of dispersion. Absorption (absorption) of light. Doppler effect.
Chapter 24. Polarization of Light 226
Natural and polarized light. Malus's law. Passage of light through two polarizers. Polarization of light during reflection and refraction at the boundary of two dielectrics. Birefringence. Positive and negative crystals. Polarizing prisms and polaroids. Quarter wave record. Analysis of polarized light. Artificial optical anisotropy. Rotation of the plane of polarization.
Chapter 25. Quantum nature of radiation 236
Thermal radiation and its characteristics. Kirchhoff's, Stefan-Boltzmann's, Wien's laws. Rayleigh-Jeans and Planck formulas. Deriving particular laws of thermal radiation from Planck's formula. Temperatures: radiation, color, brightness. Current-voltage characteristics of the photoelectric effect. Laws of the photoelectric effect. Einstein's equation. Photon momentum. Light pressure. Compton effect. Unity of corpuscular and wave properties of electromagnetic radiation.
6. ELEMENTS OF QUANTUM PHYSICS OF ATOMS, MOLECULES AND SOLIDS 246
Chapter 26. Bohr's theory of the hydrogen atom 246
Thomson and Rutherford models of the atom. Linear spectrum of a hydrogen atom. Bohr's postulates. Experiments of Frank and Hertz. Bohr spectrum of the hydrogen atom.
Chapter 27. Elements of quantum mechanics 251
Particle-wave dualism of the properties of matter. Some properties of de Broglie waves. Uncertainty relationship. Probabilistic approach to the description of microparticles. Description of microparticles using the wave function. Superposition principle. General Schrödinger equation. Schrödinger equation for stationary states. Movement of a free particle. A particle in a one-dimensional rectangular "potential well" with infinitely high "walls". Potential barrier rectangular shape. Passage of a particle through a potential barrier. Tunnel effect. Linear harmonic oscillator in quantum mechanics.
Chapter 28. Elements of modern physics of atoms and molecules 263
Hydrogen-like atom in quantum mechanics. Quantum numbers. Spectrum of a hydrogen atom. ls-state of an electron in a hydrogen atom. Electron spin. Spin quantum number. The principle of indistinguishability of identical particles. Fermions and bosons. Pauli's principle. Distribution of electrons in an atom according to states. Continuous (bremsstrahlung) X-ray spectrum. Characteristic X-ray spectrum. Moseley's Law. Molecules: chemical bonds, concept of energy levels. Molecular spectra. Absorption. Spontaneous and stimulated emission. Active media. Types of lasers. Operating principle of a solid-state laser. Gas laser. Properties of laser radiation.
Chapter 29. Elements of Solid State Physics 278
Zone theory solids. Metals, dielectrics and semiconductors according to band theory. Intrinsic conductivity of semiconductors. Electronic impurity conductivity (i-type conductivity). Donor impurity conductivity (p-type conductivity). Photoconductivity of semiconductors. Luminescence of solids. Contact between electron and hole semiconductors (pn junction). Conductivity of the p-i junction. Semiconductor diodes. Semiconductor triodes (transistors).
7. ELEMENTS OF PHYSICS OF THE ATOMIC NUCLEUS AND ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 289
Chapter 30. Elements of the physics of the atomic nucleus 289
Atomic nuclei and their description. Mass defect. Nuclear binding energy. Nuclear spin and its magnetic moment. Nuclear seeps. Kernel models. Radioactive radiation and its types. Law radioactive decay. Offset rules. Radioactive families. a-Decomposition. p-decay. y-Radiation and its properties. Instruments for recording radioactive radiation and particles. Scintillation counter. Pulse ionization chamber. Gas discharge meter. Semiconductor counter. Wilson chamber. Diffusion and bubble chambers. Nuclear photographic emulsions. Nuclear reactions and their classification. Positron. P+-Decomposition. Electron-positron pairs, their annihilation. Electronic capture. Nuclear reactions under the influence of neutrons. Nuclear fission reaction. Fission chain reaction. Nuclear reactors. The reaction of fusion of atomic nuclei.
Chapter 31. Elements of particle physics 311
Cosmic radiation. Muons and their properties. Mesons and their properties. Types of interactions of elementary particles. Description of three groups of elementary particles. Particles and antiparticles. Neutrinos and antineutrinos, their types. Hyperons. Strangeness and parity of elementary particles. Characteristics of leptons and hadrons. Classification of elementary particles. Quarks.
Periodic table elements D.I. Mendeleeva 322
Basic laws and formulas 324
Subject index 336.

Physics is one of the basic sciences of natural science. The study of physics at school begins in the 7th grade and continues until the end of school. By this time, schoolchildren should already have developed the proper mathematical apparatus necessary for studying a physics course.

• The school curriculum in physics consists of several large sections: mechanics, electrodynamics, oscillations and waves, optics, quantum physics, molecular physics and thermal phenomena.

School physics topics

In 7th grade There is a superficial familiarization and introduction to the physics course. The main physical concepts, the structure of substances is studied, as well as the pressure force with which various substances act on others. In addition, the laws of Pascal and Archimedes are studied.

In 8th grade various physical phenomena. Initial information is given about the magnetic field and the phenomena in which it occurs. Direct electric current and the basic laws of optics are studied. Various states of aggregation substances and processes that occur during the transition of a substance from one state to another.

9th grade is devoted to the basic laws of motion of bodies and their interaction with each other. The basic concepts of mechanical vibrations and waves are considered. The topic of sound and sound waves is discussed separately. The basics of the theory of the electromagnetic field and electromagnetic waves are studied. In addition, there is an acquaintance with the elements nuclear physics and the structure of the atom and the atomic nucleus is studied.

In 10th grade An in-depth study of mechanics (kinematics and dynamics) and conservation laws begins. The main types of mechanical forces are considered. There is an in-depth study of thermal phenomena, molecular kinetic theory and the basic laws of thermodynamics are studied. The basics of electrodynamics are repeated and systematized: electrostatics, the laws of constant electric current and electric current in various media.

11th grade dedicated to the study of the magnetic field and the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction. Are studied in detail various types vibrations and waves: mechanical and electromagnetic. There is a deepening of knowledge from the optics section. Elements of the theory of relativity and quantum physics are considered.

• Below is a list of classes from 7 to 11. Each class contains physics topics that are written by our tutors. These materials can be used by both students and their parents, and school teachers and tutors.

M.: 2010.- 752 p. M.: 1981.- T.1 - 336 p., T.2 - 288 p.

The book by the famous US physicist J. Orear is one of the most successful introductory courses in physics in world literature, covering the range from physics to school subject to an accessible description of her latest achievements. This book has taken pride of place on the bookshelf of several generations of Russian physicists, and for this edition the book has been significantly expanded and modernized. The author of the book is a student of an outstanding physicist of the 20th century, Nobel laureate E. Fermi - taught his course to students at Cornell University for many years. This course can serve as a useful practical introduction to the widely known Feynman Lectures on Physics and the Berkeley Course in Physics in Russia. In terms of its level and content, Orir’s book is already accessible to high school students, but may also be of interest to undergraduates, graduate students, teachers, as well as all those who want not only to systematize and expand their knowledge in the field of physics, but also to learn how to successfully solve a wide range of problems physical tasks.

Format: pdf(2010, 752 pp.)

Size: 56 MB

Watch, download: drive.google

Note: Below is a color scan.

Volume 1.

Format: djvu (1981, 336 pp.)

Size: 5.6 MB

Watch, download: drive.google

Volume 2.

Format: djvu (1981, 288 pp.)

Size: 5.3 MB

Watch, download: drive.google

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Preface by the editor of the Russian edition 13
Preface 15
1. INTRODUCTION 19
§ 1. What is physics? 19
§ 2. Units of measurement 21
§ 3. Analysis of dimensions 24
§ 4. Accuracy in physics 26
§ 5. The role of mathematics in physics 28
§ 6. Science and society 30
Application. Correct answers that do not contain some common errors 31
Exercises 31
Problems 32
2. ONE-DIMENSIONAL MOTION 34
§ 1. Speed ​​34
§ 2. Average speed 36
§ 3. Acceleration 37
§ 4. Uniformly accelerated motion 39
Key findings 43
Exercises 43
Problems 44
3. TWO-DIMENSIONAL MOTION 46
§ 1. Trajectories free fall 46
§ 2. Vectors 47
§ 3. Projectile motion 52
§ 4. Uniform motion in a circle 24
§ 5. Artificial satellites of the Earth 55
Key findings 58
Exercises 58
Problems 59
4. DYNAMICS 61
§ 1. Introduction 61
§ 2. Definitions of basic concepts 62
§ 3. Newton's laws 63
§ 4. Units of force and mass 66
§ 5. Contact forces (reaction and friction forces) 67
§ 6. Solving problems 70
§ 7. Atwood machine 73
§ 8. Conical pendulum 74
§ 9. Law of conservation of momentum 75
Key findings 77
Exercises 78
Problems 79
5. GRAVITY 82
§ 1. Law of universal gravitation 82
§ 2. Cavendish experiment 85
§ 3. Kepler's laws for planetary motions 86
§ 4. Weight 88
§ 5. The principle of equivalence 91
§ 6. Gravity field inside the sphere 92
Key findings 93
Exercises 94
Problems 95
6. WORK AND ENERGY 98
§ 1. Introduction 98
§ 2. Work 98
§ 3. Power 100
§ 4. Dot product 101
§ 5. Kinetic energy 103
§ 6. Potential energy 105
§ 7. Gravitational potential energy 107
§ 8. Potential energy of a spring 108
Key findings 109
Exercises 109
Problems 111
7. LAW OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY FROM
§ 1. Conservation of mechanical energy 114
§ 2. Collisions 117
§ 3. Conservation of gravitational energy 120
§ 4. Potential energy diagrams 122
§ 5. Conservation of total energy 123
§ 6. Energy in biology 126
§ 7. Energy and the car 128
Key findings 131
Application. Law of conservation of energy for a system of N particles 131
Exercises 132
Problems 132
8. RELATIVISTIC KINEMATICS 136
§ 1. Introduction 136
§ 2. Constancy of the speed of light 137
§ 3. Time dilation 142
§ 4. Lorentz transformations 145
§ 5. Simultaneity 148
§ 6. Optical Doppler effect 149
§ 7. The twin paradox 151
Key findings 154
Exercises 154
Problems 155
9. RELATIVISTIC DYNAMICS 159
§ 1. Relativistic addition of velocities 159
§ 2. Definition of relativistic momentum 161
§ 3. Law of conservation of momentum and energy 162
§ 4. Equivalence of mass and energy 164
§ 5. Kinetic energy 166
§ 6. Mass and force 167
§ 7. General theory of relativity 168
Key findings 170
Application. Conversion of energy and momentum 170
Exercises 171
Problems 172
10. ROTATIONAL MOTION 175
§ 1. Kinematics of rotational motion 175
§ 2. Vector product 176
§ 3. Angular momentum 177
§ 4. Dynamics of rotational motion 179
§ 5. Center of mass 182
§ 6. Solids and moment of inertia 184
§ 7. Statics 187
§ 8. Flywheels 189
Key findings 191
Exercises 191
Problems 192
11. VIBRATIONAL MOTION 196
§ 1. Harmonic force 196
§ 2. Period of oscillation 198
§ 3. Pendulum 200
§ 4. Energy of simple harmonic motion 202
§ 5. Small oscillations 203
§ 6. Sound intensity 206
Key findings 206
Exercises 208
Problems 209
12. KINETIC THEORY 213
§ 1. Pressure and hydrostatics 213
§ 2. Equation of state of an ideal gas 217
§ 3. Temperature 219
§ 4. Uniform distribution of energy 222
§ 5. Kinetic theory of heat 224
Key findings 226
Exercises 226
Problems 228
13. THERMODYNAMICS 230
§ 1. The first law of thermodynamics 230
§ 2. Avogadro's conjecture 231
§ 3. Specific heat capacity 232
§ 4. Isothermal expansion 235
§ 5. Adiabatic expansion 236
§ 6. Gasoline engine 238
Key findings 240
Exercises 241
Problems 241
14. SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 244
§ 1. Carnot machine 244
§ 2. Thermal pollution environment 246
§ 3. Refrigerators and heat pumps 247
§ 4. Second law of thermodynamics 249
§ 5. Entropy 252
§ 6. Time reversal 256
Key findings 259
Exercises 259
Problems 260
15. ELECTROSTATIC FORCE 262
§ 1. Electric charge 262
§ 2. Coulomb's Law 263
§ 3. Electric field 266
§ 4. Electric power lines 268
§ 5. Gauss's theorem 270
Key findings 275
Exercises 275
Problems 276
16. ELECTROSTATICS 279
§ 1. Spherical charge distribution 279
§ 2. Linear charge distribution 282
§ 3. Plane charge distribution 283
§ 4. Electric potential 286
§ 5. Electric capacity 291
§ 6. Dielectrics 294
Key findings 296
Exercises 297
Problems 299
17. ELECTRIC CURRENT AND MAGNETIC FORCE 302
§ 1. Electric current 302
§ 2. Ohm's law 303
§ 3. Chains DC 306
§ 4. Empirical data on magnetic force 310
§ 5. Derivation of the formula for magnetic force 312
§ 6. Magnetic field 313
§ 7. Magnetic field measurement units 316
§ 8. Relativistic transformation of quantities *8 and E 318
Key findings 320
Application. Relativistic transformations of current and charge 321
Exercises 322
Problems 323
18. MAGNETIC FIELDS 327
§ 1. Ampere's law 327
§ 2. Some current configurations 329
§ 3. Biot-Savart Law 333
§ 4. Magnetism 336
§ 5. Maxwell's equations for direct currents 339
Key findings 339
Exercises 340
Problems 341
19. ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 344
§ 1. Engines and generators 344
§ 2. Faraday's Law 346
§ 3. Lenz's Law 348
§ 4. Inductance 350
§ 5. Magnetic field energy 352
§ 6. AC circuits 355
§ 7. Circuits RC and RL 359
Key findings 362
Application. Freeform contour 363
Exercises 364
Problems 366
20. ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION AND WAVES 369
§ 1. Displacement current 369
§ 2. Maxwell's equations in general view 371
§ 3. Electromagnetic radiation 373
§ 4. Radiation of a plane sinusoidal current 374
§ 5. Non-sinusoidal current; Fourier expansion 377
§ 6. Traveling waves 379
§ 7. Energy transfer by waves 383
Key findings 384
Application. Derivation of the wave equation 385
Exercises 387
Problems 387
21. INTERACTION OF RADIATION WITH MATTER 390
§ 1. Radiation energy 390
§ 2. Radiation pulse 393
§ 3. Reflection of radiation from a good conductor 394
§ 4. Interaction of radiation with a dielectric 395
§ 5. Refractive index 396
§ 6. Electromagnetic radiation in an ionized medium 400
§ 7. Radiation field of point charges 401
Key Findings 404
Appendix 1. Phase diagram method 405
Appendix 2. Wave packets and group velocity 406
Exercises 410
Problems 410
22. WAVE INTERFERENCE 414
§ 1. Standing waves 414
§ 2. Interference of waves emitted by two point sources 417
§3. Interference of waves from large number sources 419
§ 4. Diffraction grating 421
§ 5. Huygens' principle 423
§ 6. Diffraction by a single slit 425
§ 7. Coherence and non-coherence 427
Key findings 430
Exercises 431
Problems 432
23. OPTICS 434
§ 1. Holography 434
§ 2. Polarization of light 438
§ 3. Diffraction by a round hole 443
§ 4. Optical instruments and their resolution 444
§ 5. Diffraction scattering 448
§ 6. Geometric optics 451
Key findings 455
Application. Brewster's Law 455
Exercises 456
Problems 457
24. WAVE NATURE OF MATTER 460
§ 1. Classical and modern physics 460
§ 2. Photoelectric effect 461
§ 3. Compton effect 465
§ 4. Wave-particle duality 465
§ 5. The Great Paradox 466
§ 6. Electron diffraction 470
Key findings 472
Exercises 473
Problems 473
25. QUANTUM MECHANICS 475
§ 1. Wave packets 475
§ 2. The uncertainty principle 477
§ 3. Particle in a box 481
§ 4. Schrödinger equation 485
§ 5. Potential wells of finite depth 486
§ 6. Harmonic oscillator 489
Key findings 491
Exercises 491
Problems 492
26. HYDROGEN ATOM 495
§ 1. Approximate theory of the hydrogen atom 495
§ 2. Schrödinger's equation in three dimensions 496
§ 3. Rigorous theory of the hydrogen atom 498
§ 4. Orbital angular momentum 500
§ 5. Emission of photons 504
§ 6. Stimulated emission 508
§ 7. Bohr model of the atom 509
Key findings 512
Exercises 513
Problems 514
27. ATOMIC PHYSICS 516
§ 1. Pauli's exclusion principle 516
§ 2. Multielectron atoms 517
§ 3. Periodic table of elements 521
§ 4. X-ray radiation 525
§ 5. Bonding in molecules 526
§ 6. Hybridization 528
Key findings 531
Exercises 531
Problems 532
28. CONDENSED MATTER 533
§ 1. Types of communication 533
§ 2. Theory of free electrons in metals 536
§ 3. Electrical conductivity 540
§ 4. Band theory of solids 544
§ 5. Physics of semiconductors 550
§ 6. Superfluidity 557
§ 7. Penetration through the barrier 558
Key findings 560
Application. Various applications/?-n-junction (in radio and television) 562
Exercises 564
Problems 566
29. NUCLEAR PHYSICS 568
§ 1. Dimensions of nuclei 568
§ 2. Fundamental forces acting between two nucleons 573
§ 3. Structure of heavy nuclei 576
§ 4. Alpha decay 583
§ 5. Gamma and beta decays 586
§ 6. Nuclear fission 588
§ 7. Synthesis of nuclei 592
Key findings 596
Exercises 597
Problems 597
30. ASTROPHYSICS 600
§ 1. Energy sources of stars 600
§ 2. Evolution of stars 603
§ 3. Quantum mechanical pressure of a degenerate Fermi gas 605
§ 4. White dwarfs 607
§ 6. Black holes 609
§ 7. Neutron stars 611
31. PHYSICS OF ELEMENTARY PARTICLES 615
§ 1. Introduction 615
§ 2. Fundamental particles 620
§ 3. Fundamental Interactions 622
§ 4. Interactions between fundamental particles as an exchange of quanta of the carrier field 623
§ 5. Symmetries in the world of particles and conservation laws 636
§ 6. Quantum electrodynamics as a local gauge theory 629
§ 7. Internal symmetries of hadrons 650
§ 8. Quark model of hadrons 636
§ 9. Color. Quantum Chromodynamics 641
§ 10. Are quarks and gluons “visible”? 650
§ 11. Weak interactions 653
§ 12. Non-conservation of parity 656
§ 13. Intermediate bosons and non-renormalizability of the theory 660
§ 14. Standard model 662
§ 15. New ideas: GUT, supersymmetry, superstrings 674
32. GRAVITY AND COSMOLOGY 678
§ 1. Introduction 678
§ 2. The principle of equivalence 679
§ 3. Metric theories of gravitation 680
§ 4. Structure of the general relativity equations. Simplest solutions 684
§ 5. Verification of the equivalence principle 685
§ 6. How to estimate the scale of effects of general relativity? 687
§ 7. Classic tests OTO 688
§ 8. Basic principles of modern cosmology 694
§ 9. Model of the hot Universe (“standard” cosmological model) 703
§ 10. Age of the Universe 705
§11. Critical Density and Friedman evolution scenarios 705
§ 12. Density of matter in the Universe and hidden mass 708
§ 13. Scenario for the first three minutes of the evolution of the Universe 710
§ 14. Near the very beginning 718
§ 15. Inflation scenario 722
§ 16. The mystery of dark matter 726
APPENDIX A 730
Physical constants 730
Some astronomical information 730
APPENDIX B 731
Basic units of measurement physical quantities 731
Units of measurement electrical quantities 731
APPENDIX B 732
Geometry 732
Trigonometry 732
Quadratic Equation 732
Some derivatives 733
Some indefinite integrals (up to an arbitrary constant) 733
Products of vectors 733
Greek alphabet 733
ANSWERS TO EXERCISES AND PROBLEMS 734
INDEX 746

At present, there is practically no area of ​​natural science or technical knowledge where the achievements of physics are not used to one degree or another. Moreover, these achievements are increasingly penetrating the traditional humanities, which is reflected in the inclusion of the discipline “Concepts of modern natural science” in the curricula of all humanities majors at Russian universities.
The book brought to the attention of the Russian reader by J. Orir was first published in Russia (more precisely, in the USSR) more than a quarter of a century ago, but, as happens with really good books, has not yet lost interest and relevance. The secret of the vitality of Orir's book is that it successfully fills a niche that is invariably in demand by new generations of readers, mainly young ones.
Without being a textbook in the usual sense of the word - and without claims to replace it - Orir's book offers a fairly complete and consistent presentation of the entire course of physics at a very elementary level. This level is not burdened by complex mathematics and, in principle, is accessible to every inquisitive and hardworking schoolchild, and especially to students.
An easy and free style of presentation that does not sacrifice logic and does not avoid difficult questions, a thoughtful selection of illustrations, diagrams and graphs, the use of a large number of examples and problems that, as a rule, have practical significance and correspond to the life experience of students - all this makes Orir’s book an indispensable guide for self-education or additional reading.
Of course, it can be successfully used as a useful addition to regular textbooks and manuals on physics, primarily in physics and mathematics classes, lyceums and colleges. Orir's book can also be recommended to junior students of higher education. educational institutions, in which physics is not a major discipline.

Depending on your goal, free time and level of mathematical preparation, several options are possible.

Option 1

The goal is “for yourself”, the deadlines are not limited, mathematics is also almost from scratch.

Choose a line of textbooks that is more interesting, for example, and study it, taking notes in a notebook. Then go through the textbooks of G. Ya. Myakishev and B. B. Bukhovtsev for grades 10-11 in the same way. Consolidate your knowledge - read.

If G. S. Landsberg's manuals do not suit you, and they are specifically for those who study physics from scratch, take the line of textbooks for grades 7-9 by A. V. Peryshkin and E. M. Gutnik. There is no need to be embarrassed that this is for young children - sometimes even fifth-year students without preparation “swim” in Peryshkin for 7th grade already from the tenth page.

How to practice

Be sure to answer the questions and complete the tasks after the paragraphs.

At the end of the notebook, make yourself a reference book on basic concepts and formulas.

Be sure to find videos on YouTube with physical experiments that appear in the textbook. Look through and take notes according to the scheme: what did you see - what did you observe - why? I recommend the resource - all experiments and theory for them are systematized there.

Immediately start a separate notebook for solving problems. Start with and solve half of the tasks from it. Then solve by 70% or, as an option - “for 10-11 grades G.N. and A.P. Stepanov.

Try to decide for yourself, look in the solution book as a last resort. If you encounter a difficulty, look for an analogue of the problem with analysis. To do this, you need to have 3-4 paper books on hand, where solutions to physical problems are discussed in detail. For example, N. E. Savchenko or books by I. L. Kasatkina.

If everything is clear to you, and your soul asks for complex things, take it for specialized classes and solve all the exercises.

We invite everyone who wants to study physics

Option 2

The goal is a Unified State Examination or another, the period is two years, mathematics is from scratch.

Handbook for schoolchildren by O. F. Kabardin and “Collection of problems in physics” for grades 10-11 by O. I. Gromtseva O. I. (“tailored” for the Unified State Exam). If the exam is not the Unified State Exam, it is better to take the problem books of V. I. Lukashik and A. P. Rymkevich or “Collection of questions and problems in physics” for grades 10-11 by G. N. Stepanova, A. P. Stepanova. Do not hesitate to refer to the textbooks of A.V. Peryshkin and E.M. Gutnik for grades 7-9, or better yet, take notes on them too.

Persistent and hardworking people can go through the entire book by V. A. Orlov, G. G. Nikiforov, A. A. Fadeeva and others. This manual has everything you need: theory, practice, tasks.

How to practice

The system is the same as in the first option:

• keep notebooks for taking notes and solving problems,
• take notes and solve problems in your notebook yourself,
• view and analyze experiments, for example, on.
• If you want to most effectively prepare for the Unified State Exam or Unified State Exam in the remaining time,

Option 3

The goal is the Unified State Exam, the deadline is 1 year, mathematics is at a good level.

If mathematics is normal, you don’t have to turn to textbooks for grades 7-9, but immediately take grades 10-11 and O. F. Kabardin’s reference book for schoolchildren. The Kabardin manual contains topics that are not in textbooks for grades 10-11. At the same time, I recommend watching videos with experiments in physics and analyzing them according to the scheme.

Option 4

The goal is the Unified State Exam, the deadline is 1 year, mathematics is at zero.

It is unrealistic to prepare for the Unified State Exam in a year without a foundation in mathematics. Unless you do all the points from option No. 2 every day for 2 hours.

Teachers and tutors at the Foxford online school will help you achieve maximum result for the remaining time.