Comparison of the properties of a geographical map and a site plan.

Area plan. Geographic map

Map- a reduced generalized symbolic image of the surface of the Earth (its part), other planets or the celestial sphere, built to scale and projection.

Site plan- a drawing of the area, made in conventional symbols and on a large scale (1:5000 and larger).

When making plans, the curvature of the earth's surface is not taken into account, because small areas or areas of terrain are depicted.

The difference between a site plan and a geographical map:

1) plans depict small areas of terrain, so they are built on a large scale (for example, 1 cm - 5 m). Geographic maps show significantly large areas, their scale is smaller;

2) the plan depicts the area in detail, preserving the exact outlines of the depicted objects, but only in a reduced form. The large scale of the plan allows you to reflect on it almost all objects located on the ground. It is not possible to plot all objects on a map that has a smaller scale, so when creating maps, objects are generalized. The exact outlines of all objects on the map also cannot be shown, so they are distorted to one degree or another. Many objects on the map, unlike the plan, are depicted by non-scale symbols;

3) when constructing a plan, the curvature of the earth’s surface is not taken into account, since a small area of ​​terrain is depicted. When constructing a map, it is always taken into account. Maps are built in certain map projections;

4) there is no degree network on the plans. Parallels and meridians must be marked on the map;

5) on the plan, the north direction is considered up by default, the south direction is down, the west direction is left, the east direction is right (sometimes on the plan the north-south direction is shown by an arrow that does not coincide with the up-down direction). On maps, the direction north - south is determined by meridians, west - east - by parallels.

Comparison of cartographic image methods. Methods of depicting objects and phenomena on geographical maps

Conventional signs- designations used on maps to depict various objects and their qualitative and quantitative characteristics. With the help of conventional signs they designate as real objects (for example, settlements), and abstract (for example, population density). Conventional signs are intended to indicate the type and some characteristics of objects (phenomena) depicted on the map and determine their position in space.

Conventional signs are:

— non-scale(used to depict objects that cannot be expressed on a map scale). Are these drawings or geometric shapes, the shape of which usually resembles the depicted object (Fig. 1). Letter characters also refer to non-scale symbols. The position of the object on the ground corresponds to the center of a sign with a symmetrical shape, the middle of the base of the sign with a wide base, the apex of the corner of the sign with a base in the form right angle, the center of the lower figure of the sign, which is a combination of several figures;

— linear(used to depict linear objects - rivers, roads, borders, pipelines, etc.). To scale, they convey only the length and shape of the object; their width is exaggerated, so it cannot be measured (Fig. 2);

— areal, or contour(used to depict geographical objects that occupy a certain area - a lake, a forest, etc.). The actual size of objects is transmitted (Fig. 3).

They consist of an outline (forests, swamps, etc.) and its filling (color, shading).

Explanatory conventional signs(for example, arrows showing the direction of river flow, figures of deciduous and coniferous trees etc.), signatures, letters and numbers also carry certain information on the card.

Cartographic methods of representation

A method for a high-quality background. It is used to depict on a map the qualitative features of certain objects or phenomena that have a continuous distribution on the earth’s surface or occupy large areas. Its essence lies in the fact that areas on the map that are homogeneous according to a certain characteristic(s) are identified (for example, natural areas) and paint (or shade) them in the colors selected for them (shading).

Method of habitats. Area- the area of ​​distribution of a phenomenon on the earth’s surface (for example, the territory in which a certain animal lives, or the territory in which a particular agricultural crop is grown, etc.).

Isoline method. Isolines(from the Greek isos - equal) - lines on geographical maps passing through points with the same value of some quantitative indicator(temperature, precipitation, depth, altitude, etc.) characterizing the depicted phenomenon. For example, isotherms are lines connecting places with the same temperature; isobaths - lines connecting places with the same depth; horizontal lines are lines connecting points on the earth's surface with the same absolute height. The essence of the isoline method is that points on the map with the same values ​​of a certain indicator are connected thin lines, i.e., draw isolines.

Movement lines. Lines (arrows) show the direction of movement of any objects - air masses, winds, ocean currents, rivers, etc.

Determining directions, measuring distances on a plan and map

On the plan, north - south is shown by an arrow. If there is no arrow on the plan, then it is considered that north is at the top, south is at the bottom.

On the map, directions are determined using a degree network. The direction north - south corresponds to the direction of the meridians, west - east - parallels.

Azimuth measurements Maps are made using a protractor. Azimuth- the angle formed at a given point or on a map between the direction north and any object and measured clockwise.

So, if an object is located strictly north of the point where the observer is located, then the azimuth to it will be 0°, to the east - 90°, to the south - 180°, to the west - 270°. Azimuths can range from 0° to 360°. In order to measure azimuth on a map, you need to draw a line parallel to the north-south direction through the starting point of the determined direction. Then, also through the point, draw a line connecting the point and the object to which you want to determine the azimuth. And then, using a protractor, measure the resulting angle (azimuth), taking into account that azimuth is always measured clockwise.

Determination of geographical coordinates

Degree network and its elements. Earth degree network- a system of meridians and parallels on geographic maps and globes, used to count the geographic coordinates of points on the earth's surface - longitudes and latitudes - or to plot objects on the map according to their coordinates.

To create a degree network, certain reference points are required. The spherical shape of the Earth determines the existence of two fixed points on the earth's surface - poles. An imaginary axis around which the Earth rotates passes through the poles.

Geographic poles- mathematically calculated points of intersection of the imaginary axis of rotation of the Earth with the earth's surface.

Equator- an imaginary line on the earth’s surface, obtained by mentally dissecting the ellipsoid into two equal parts (Northern and Southern Hemisphere). All points of the equator are equidistant from the poles. The plane of the equator is perpendicular to the Earth's axis of rotation and passes through its center. The hemispheres are mentally separated by many more planes parallel to the plane of the equator. The lines of their intersection with the surface of the ellipsoid are called parallels. All of them, like the equatorial plane, are perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the planet. You can draw as many parallels on a map and globe as you like, but usually on educational maps they are drawn with an interval of 10-20°. The parallels are always oriented from west to east. The circumference of the parallels decreases from the equator to the poles. At the equator it is greatest, and at the poles it is zero.

When the globe is crossed by imaginary planes passing through the Earth's axis perpendicular to the equatorial plane, great circles are formed - meridians. Meridians can also be drawn through any points of the ellipsoid. They all intersect at the pole points (Fig. 4). The meridians are oriented from north to south. Average length arc 1° meridian: 40,008.5 km: 360° = 111 km. The length of all meridians is the same. The direction of the local meridian at any point can be determined at noon by the shadow of any object. In the Northern Hemisphere, the end of the shadow always points north, in the Southern Hemisphere it always points south.

A degree network is necessary to measure the geographic coordinates of points on the earth’s surface—latitude and longitude.

Geographic latitude- the distance along the meridian in degrees from the equator to any point on the surface of the Earth. The origin is the equator. The latitude of all points on it is 0. At the poles the latitude is 90°. North latitude is measured north of the equator, and southern latitude is measured to the south.

Geographic longitude— the distance along the parallel in degrees from the prime meridian to any point on the earth’s surface. All meridians are equal in length, so it was necessary to choose one of them for counting. It became the Greenwich meridian, passing near London (where the Greenwich Observatory is located). Longitude is measured from 0° to 180°. To the east of the prime meridian up to 180° eastern longitude is measured, to the west - western longitude.

Thus, using the degree network, it is possible to accurately determine geographical coordinates- quantities that determine the position of a point on the earth’s surface relative to the equator and the prime meridian. For example, the geographic coordinates of Cape Chelyuskin (the extreme northern point of Eurasia) are 78° N. w. and 104° E. d.

Finding distances on a map

Scale is the ratio of the length of a line on a drawing, plan or map to the length of the corresponding line in reality. The scale shows how many times the distance on the map is reduced relative to the actual distance on the ground. If, for example, the scale of a geographic map is 1: 1,000,000, this means that 1 cm on the map corresponds to 1,000,000 cm on the ground, or 10 km.

There are numerical, linear and named scales.

Numerical scale is depicted as a fraction in which the numerator is equal to one, and the denominator is a number showing how many times the lines on the map (plan) are reduced relative to the lines on the ground. For example, a scale of 1:100,000 shows that all linear dimensions on the map are reduced by 100,000 times. Obviously, the larger the denominator of the scale, the smaller the scale; with a smaller denominator, the scale is larger. The numerical scale is a fraction, so the numerator and denominator are given in the same measurements (centimeters).

Linear scale is a straight line divided into equal segments. These segments correspond to a certain distance on the depicted terrain; divisions are indicated by numbers. A measure of length along which divisions are made scale ruler, are called the basis of scale. In our country, the base of the scale is taken to be 1 cm. The number of meters or kilometers corresponding to the base of the scale is called the scale value. When constructing a linear scale, the number 0, from which the divisions begin, is usually placed not at the very end of the scale line, but retreated one division (base) to the right; on the first segment to the left of 0, the smallest divisions of the linear scale are applied - millimeters. The distance on the ground corresponding to one smallest division of the linear scale corresponds to the scale accuracy, and 0.1 mm corresponds to the maximum scale accuracy. A linear scale, compared to a numerical one, has the advantage that it makes it possible to determine the actual distance on a plan and map without additional calculations.

Named scale- scale expressed in words, for example, 1 cm 250 km. (Fig. 5):

Measuring distances on a map and plan. Measuring distances using a scale. To measure distance, you need to draw a straight line (if you need to know the distance in a straight line) between two points and use a ruler to measure this distance in centimeters, and then multiply the resulting number by the scale value. For example, on a map of scale 1: 100,000 (1 cm is 1 km) the distance is 5 cm, i.e. on the ground this distance is 1.5 = 5 (km). If you need to measure the distance between objects indicated by off-scale symbols, then measure the distance between the centers of the symbols.

Measuring distances using a degree network. To calculate distances on a map or globe, you can use the following values: the arc length of 1° meridian and 1° equator is approximately 111 km. The total length of the earth's meridian is 40,009 km. Due to the fact that the Earth is flattened at the poles (polar compression), the length of the 1° arc along the meridian at the equator (110.6 km) is less than at the poles (111.7 km). It is believed that the average length of 1° meridian is 111.1 km. The length of an arc of 1° along the parallels decreases towards the poles. At the equator it can also be taken equal to 111 km, and at the poles - 0 (since a pole is a point). To determine the distance in kilometers between two points lying on the same meridian, calculate the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply the number of degrees by 111.1 km. To determine the distance between two points on the equator, you also need to determine the distance between them in degrees, and then multiply by 111.1 km. To determine the distance between two points located on the same parallel, you need to know the number of kilometers corresponding to the length of 1° arc of each specific parallel.

Definition of zone and zone time

Time zones. Local and standard time. Sunny time at points located on the same meridian are called local . Due to the fact that at every moment of the day it is different on all meridians, it is inconvenient to use. Therefore, by international agreement, standard time was introduced. The entire surface of the Earth was divided along the meridians into 24 zones of 15° longitude. Belt (same within each zone) time — this is the local time of the median meridian of a given zone. Zero belt is a belt whose median meridian is the Greenwich (prime) meridian. From there, the belts are counted to the east.

Since 2014, 11 time zones have been established in Russia. The starting point for calculating the local time of time zones is Moscow time - the time of the II time zone (see map). Thus, the difference in time between the first time zone and the eleventh is 10 hours.

Conventionally, it is believed that a new day begins in the 12th time zone (through which the 180° meridian passes - the international date line). West of the international date line, a new day begins (according to the calendar). Therefore, in the logbook of a ship sailing from west to east, one day must be counted twice, and a ship moving from east to west, as it were, “skips” one day, after December 31 it immediately ends up on January 2.

Use of statistical materials to determine trends in the development of geographical processes and phenomena

To reflect trends in process development, statistical tables are often used, where data is presented as a percentage of previous year— last year’s production volume is 100%. Therefore, if for next year The table indicates any number greater than 100, then the volume of production this year was greater than in the previous year.

Building a relief profile from a map

Relief image on maps. Relief on maps is depicted by contour lines, special symbols and elevation marks.

Horizontals- lines on the map along which all points on the earth's surface have the same absolute height. The difference between two heights of adjacent horizontal lines is called the relief section. The smaller the cross-section of the relief, the more detailed it is depicted. The size of the relief section depends on the scale of the map and on the nature of the relief itself. The relief is depicted in most detail on topographic maps Oh. For example, on a map of scale 1:25,000 (250 m in 1 cm), solid horizontal lines are drawn through 5 m, and on a map of scale 1:100,000 (1 cm in 1 km), a relief section of 20 m is used for flat areas and 40 m for mountain On small-scale maps, an uneven cross-section of the relief is usually used: more frequent in flat areas and larger in mountainous areas. Yes, on physical map In Russia on a scale of 1:25,000,000, horizontal lines are drawn at heights of 0, 200, 500, 1000, 2000, 3000, 4000 m. Isobaths (depth contours) are also shown.

Using horizontal lines, you can easily determine the absolute height of any point on the earth's surface and the relative height of two points (the excess of one over the other). Contour lines also help determine the steepness of slopes. The closer the horizontal lines are to one another, the steeper the slope. Additional information about the relief on topographic maps is given berg strokes- small strokes drawn perpendicular to the horizontal lines, indicating in which direction the relief is decreasing.

To depict relief forms that are not expressed by horizontal lines (for example, sharp ledges, cliffs, ravines, etc.), special symbols are used.

Absolute altitudes Peaks or depressions on maps are labeled with numbers. Absolute heights are indicated in meters.

Elements of hydrography help to understand the general nature of changes in relief - for example, if a river is shown on the map, then, as a rule, there is a general decrease in the relief of the right left bank towards its bed. The direction of the river flow also shows the direction in which the absolute height of the points decreases.

Cartography as a science dates back to the Bronze Age. Archaeological excavations have demonstrated that the oldest examples were created in Egypt, ancient Babylon, Asia Minor (modern Turkey), the Marshall Islands and Italy. Without a schematic drawing of the terrain, precise movement and implementation of military tactics is impossible. Despite completely different ideas about the shape of the planet, the inhabitants Ancient world, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the New Century and modern times, they tried to record all the features of the landscape as reliably as possible. Ancient people allowed many geographical inaccuracies in cartography, and the creation of diagrams could be equated to art - they were performed by real masters and supplemented with many artistic elements. For example, cities were drawn in the form of castle towers with family coats of arms, forests were represented by several types of trees, trading ports were indicated by the type of ships popular in the region (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Maps used until the last century

Samples more similar to modern ones appeared only after the 18th century, when humanity gained a complete understanding of the geography of the planet, the location of all rivers, seas, and oceans.

However, the most accurate plans became available by the mid-twentieth century.

In everyday life, knowing what the symbols of geographical maps mean will help you quickly get to any destination. In conditions wildlife and survival, getting lost in the forest, but having a map with you, you can save your life and get out easily. Despite the popularity of GPS navigators, electronic equipment It can always fail, incorrectly determine the coordinates or run out of power. Paper analogues are at hand and come to the rescue in any situation. They are easy to use not only to find out your location in a wild or populated area, but also to plot a shorter driving route. Without the use of diagrams, it is difficult to imagine the work of military personnel, foresters, fishermen, geological engineers and builders. What types of symbols exist on maps and how to determine their exact meaning, we will consider further.

Symbols of geographical maps

Conventional signs on the map are presented in the form of simplified graphic symbols indicating landscape objects, for example, mountain ranges, lakes, forest plantations, paths, highways, public and residential buildings, boundaries between settlements. The icons vary depending on the type of application. For example, for urban plans they will be the same, but for suburban plans they will be completely different.

Figure 2. Main groups of signs

Highlight the following groups signs (Figure 2):

1. Scientific or reference. Includes soil types, landscape and soil details, local fossils, types of water bodies and trees, common animals, birds and fish, buildings, municipal and socio-cultural monuments, transport links and much more. The purpose of such diagrams is a detailed display of all important features landscape for accurate orientation. Also used for informational purposes;
2. Educational. Developed for teaching children of preschool and school age. Often interactive and intuitive;
3. Tourist. It is impossible to imagine any traveler’s luggage without them. Contains accurate landscape details. However, more attention is paid to paths in forests and mountains, crossings over rough or swampy terrain. This group also includes urban options that clearly explain the new city. With their help, it is easy to visit all excursion places without getting lost in the interweaving of residential areas and numerous streets.

The newer the diagram, the more closely it corresponds to the actual location of all objects. Often presented in color for easier orientation.

Figure 3. Example of legends for different cards

The structure of all geographical maps - both outdated and modern - is divided into two main parts:

• Schematically depicted landscape. The colors evoke the correct associations with the real components of the relief: forest plantations are green, ponds are blue or blue, hills are brown, highways are red or orange, and railway tracks are black. Sometimes details are specified, such as the material of the bridge or the type of scaffolding. However, on each plane there are many more signs displayed, many of them may seem incomprehensible at first glance;
• Legend (Figure 3). A legend is an explanation for each individual diagram. There is no general standardization in cartography, but decoding of symbols and content must be present in mandatory, otherwise it is considered invalid. You can find the legend in the free fields. Sometimes a separate place is allocated for it. Even if you have forgotten what the pictograms on the plan mean, turning to the legend, you can intuitively figure it out.

Contrary to prevailing stereotypes, reading a geographic map does not require specialized skills, and even a schoolchild can cope with this task. When faced with a new scheme, it is enough to familiarize yourself with the legend and start getting your bearings.

Types of symbols on maps

Symbols of geographical maps are necessary to display schematic objects, their features and characteristics on the terrain plan. They are divided into three types, which are determined by scale: linear, area and point. Each of them includes objects with similar features: industrial buildings and administrative facilities (bridges, railway crossings, borders between regions and countries) or details of the natural landscape. Each group is indicated by a simple and easy to remember icon. For example, coniferous forests are represented by a schematic symbol of a pine tree (Figure 4). It reliably displays the type of object and is universal for most terrain plans, which will provide convenient and instant orientation in any conditions.

Figure 4. Types of signs on maps

Basic requirements for icons that can be used to select a suitable geographic map:

1. Readability and recognition;
2. No overload of elements;
3. Ease of remembering;
4. Compact and reliable.

We will consider further what the symbols of topographic maps include.

Linear signs

Linear symbols on the map depict objects that have a certain extent (Figure 5).

Among them:

1. Roads (motorways, highways, highways, paths). They are divided into dirt and asphalt. Modern and roadworthy are highlighted in orange. Gray or black represent unpaved sections of the road or trail;
2. Railway and tram tracks. Divided by the number of tracks (one or several pairs of rails), width (narrow or standard), and general condition(working, closed and in construction mode). They are indicated by a horizontal line on which perpendicular lines are applied in the order: one track - one line. A rectangle is drawn on the line, which indicates the station building or platform;
3. Bridges. They vary depending on the material (reinforced concrete, wood, stone and others), the number of tiers, dynamics (solid, sliding or lifting). Pontoon (floating) vessels are indicated by separate symbols;
4. Gas or oil pipelines;
5. Power lines;
6. Cellular or radio towers;
7. Rivers of any length or streams, canals;
8. Any fences or walls,
9. Borders between settlements and countries.

Figure 5. Example of linear signs

Represented by colored thin, bold and bold lines (straight, curved). It is worth noting that only their length in millimeters with translation to scale is accurate.

On geographical maps there is no correct indication of the width of linear symbols.

Exaggerated width makes reading easier. This group also includes isolines (isohypses), necessary for three-dimensional designation of the shapes and features of the territory.

Area signs

Area (also known as scale) symbols on a local map are needed to correctly convey the shape and outline, relief, size and location of large geographical objects (Figure 6). Also called “contour”. These include both individual areas and entire cities. They have a reliable length and width in a two-dimensional plane, presented on a reduced scale (for example, 1:10000) and forms as close as possible to reality. Their structure is divided into an outline and a colored background, shading or a grid of identical symbols indicating the properties of the object.

Symbols of topographic maps

Tikhonova L.Ya. Geography teacher MBOU "Lyceum No. 3" Prokhladny, KBR

Do you know the symbols?

Read the letter

Hello mom!

We went hiking. We left early in the morning

from, let's go to,

turned west along and approached

.To our right was

. Then, past along

but we returned to.

There lived in Rus' the glorious hero Alyosha Popovich,

and he only knew how to lie on the stove, and with Tugarin

We fight snakes. He once set off for gold

To free the folk from the clutches of the Tugarin people.

His path lay through birch forest , past the rotten

swamps , through which path was. Came in

Alyosha goes into the thicket of the forest and sees a picturesque lake ,

and next to him forester's house . He asks the forester,

how to get to him river , where is the Tugarin army

settled down. And the old man answers him, it’s a long way

you have to. First you will go along dirt road ,

turn into pine forest . There you will see well done ,

boldly go from him to spring , by the spring

there is deep ravine , cross it and you will see meadow ,

stands in that meadow lonely tree .

If you approach him, Tugarin himself will appear.

Write the story in symbols

http://aida.ucoz.ru

Determine the direction

Measure the distance using the scale shown in Fig. 39

in 1 cm 100 m

• Determine the scale of the plan.
• Measure the distance from the birch tree to the barn with a ruler.
• Calculate the distance using a scale.
• Determine the distance from the birch tree to the point 162.3 m; to the lake; to the wooden bridge.

0.9 cm

0.9 cm x 100 m = 90 m

Draw a site plan

An observer stands in the center of the area in a meadow. He sees:

• In the north, 300 m, school
• In the east, 250 m, bushes
• To the north-west, 400 m, orchard
• To the south, 150 m, lake, eastern shore is swampy
• To the southwest, 200 m, bush
• To the north, 450 m, mixed forest
• To the west, 200 m, open forest
• To the south-east, 100 m, well

M: in 1 cm 100 m

A plan from one point is called polar

http://aida.ucoz.ru

Draw a route plan of the area (M 1: 10000m)

The guys went from school (vol. 1) on an excursion (the school is located in the northwestern area)

v.1 → v.2 – on v. 800 m along the path through the orchard,

t.2 – well on the bank of the river. Belka, the river flows from the south. us.

t.2→t.3 – 500 m against the river flow along a path through the bushes,

v.3 – spring,

t.3→t.4 – to the north-west. along a dirt road through a field 400 m.

v.4 – windmill, south of point 4 we saw a lake, the eastern shore of which is swampy,

t.4→t.5 – to the south-west. 400 m along the path through the meadow to the birch (t. 5),

t.5→t.1 – we returned to school along a dirt road through open forest

http://aida.ucoz.ru

Draw a sign

Draw a sign

windmill

Draw a sign

Draw a sign

sparse forest

Draw a sign

free standing tree

We all know what a legend is in the common sense. This is a legend, an epic, a story with fictional elements. But what is a map legend? Not everyone knows this completely. Let's understand this term.

What is a map legend?

In cartography, a legend is a table or list of symbols used in an atlas, accompanied by an explanation of those symbols. Such a system is not unified for all maps, but is standardized and mandatory for their topographic appearance.

Usually in atlases the map legend with symbols is located on free space so as not to hide any objects from the reader. If the publication is large, then a page, or even several, is allocated for the map. Usually the symbols in legends are collected in thematic groups: settlements, roads, terrain, climatic zones, plants and animals, industrial facilities, etc. Also, any statistical or information information may be included here.

Symbolism of the legend

Conventional signs in this case are graphic symbols, which denote various objects and terrain features. The legend of a world map or a specific area helps to understand them. Without this, it is impossible to read the atlas correctly.

If you constantly work with cards, then you already understand some symbols logically. For example, if something is drawn that has a certain area, this object will be outlined by borders or even shaded from the inside. To depict what is not stretched out on the ground, lines and certain point symbols are used.

The area of ​​an object is not taken as an approximate area - its image is based on scale. You will always find information about the latter in the legend of the map of Russia, the world, a separate zone or region.

The main requirements for symbols are that they must be simple, logically understandable and varied. For this, for example, separate categories executed by the cartographer in the same color and style, both on the map and in the legend. You can also highlight something by choosing a specific font and its size. For example, megacities are designated in capital letters, regional centers- in capital letters, small settlements - in small print. And the legend already describes what number of inhabitants each spelling implies.

One more thing important requirement to the atlas - the readability of symbols not only in the legend table, but also on it itself. It is difficult to understand what is depicted if the symbols merge with the general background, are similar to each other, and are drawn without taking into account the quality of the print. The cartographer also pays attention to whether the atlas will be color or black and white. In the first case, the variety and clear visibility of symbols is mostly achieved by various shades, in the second - by the diversity of images, shapes, and fonts.

Of course, it is more convenient for us to navigate the terrain as much as possible detailed maps. But at the same time, overload with symbolism can make reading the atlas very difficult. To find out what this or that conventional sign hides, you have to turn to the legend over and over again, which is quite troublesome. Therefore, a cartographer must be able to be concise - depict only what is necessary, add somewhere necessary details, remove the enlarged area. Otherwise, the map will turn into a complex puzzle for a student, traveler, or other reader.

Groupings of legend characters

As we have already mentioned, there is no harmonious uniformity in the world of cartography. Some unified symbols were adopted at international geographical congresses in 1909 and 1912. They established the symbols of the legend, the so-called “Millionth International Card”.

However, at the same time, we can distinguish the main groups of conventional signs:

• Digital lettering.
• Off-scale symbols.
• Signs for objects that are depicted at map scale.
• Linear symbols - borders, highways, railways, coastal, connected lines, horizontal lines, etc.

Basic symbols

Having analyzed what a map legend is, we saw that its main character will be the symbolism used on the depicted plan of the area. The most common signs are as follows:

What is a map legend? These are conventional signs that designate a particular object in the atlas, and they brief description. There are quite strict requirements for such symbols in order to make the map readable and logical.

LIST OF CONVENTIONAL ABBREVIATIONS USED ON TOPOGRAPHIC MAPS

A
And asphalt, asphalt concrete (road surface material)
auto automobile plant
alb. alabaster plant
eng. hangar
anil. aniline dyeing plant
AO Autonomous Region
apat. apatite developments
ar. aryk (canal or ditch in Central Asia)
art. k. artesian well
arch. archipelago
asb. asbestos factory, quarry, mine
ASSR Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic
astr. astronomical point
asf. asphalt plant
aerd. aerodrome
airp. airport

B
Used cobblestone (road surface material)
b., ball. beam
B., Bol. Big one. -oe, -ie (part of proper name)
bar. barracks
bass. pool
ber. birch (wood species)
Beth. concrete (dam material)
biol. Art. biological station
bl.-p. checkpoint (railway)
bol. swamp
Br paving stones (road surface material)
br. ford
br. could. mass grave
b. tr. transformer booth
bulg. bulgunnyakh (separate hillock of natural formation)
boom. paper industry (factory, mill)
Boer. drilling rig, well
buh. bay

IN
In viscous (river bottom soil) (hydrography)
vag. car repair, car building plant
vdkch. water pump
vdp. waterfall
vdpr. Art. waterworks
vdhr. reservoir
Vel. Great, -aya, -oe, -ie (part of its own name)
vet. veterinary station
wine winery, distillery
railway station railway station
Vlk. volcano
water water tower
High Vyselki (part of its own name)

G
G gravel (road surface material)
woof harbor
gas. gas plant, gas rig, well
gazg. gas holder (large gas tank)
gal. haberdashery industry (plant, factory)
pebble pebbles (mining product)
gar. garage
hydrol. Art. hydrological station
Ch. Chief (part of proper name)
clay clay (mining product)
alumina alumina refinery
hound pottery factory
mountains hot spring
gost. hotel
prokh. mountain pass
dirty mud volcano
Fuel and lubricants (warehouse)
g.-sol. bitter-salty water (in lakes, springs, wells)
gsp. hospital
hydroelectric power plant

D
D wooden (material of bridge, dam)
dv. yard
det. d. orphanage
jute. jute mill
D.O. holiday home
domostr. house-building plant, ancient plant woodworking industry (plant, factory)
ancient ug. charcoal(firing product)
firewood wood warehouse
trembling yeast plant

E
er. erik (narrow deep channel connecting the river bed with a small lake)

AND
Reinforced concrete reinforced concrete (bridge, dam material)
zhel. ferruginous source, place of iron ore mining,
iron processing plant,
yellow-sour iron acid source

Zap. Western, -aya, -oe,-y (part of its own name)
zap. zapan (backwater, river bay)
zap. reserve
falling asleep backfilled well
zat. backwater (a bay on a river used for wintering and ship repairs)
beast. Fur breeding state farm, nursery
Earth earthen (dam material)
earth dugout
mirror mirror factory
grain grain farm
winter wintering, winter quarters
angry gold (mine, deposit)
gold-plate gold-platinum developments

AND
games. toy factory
Izv. lime quarry, lime (firing product)
emer. emerald mines
inst. institute
lawsuit fiber artificial fiber (factory)
ist. source

TO
K rocky (river bottom soil), crushed stone (road surface material), stone (bridge, dam material)
K., K. well
Kaz. barracks
Kam. quarry, stone
stone-fraction stone crushing plant
Kam. stb. stone pillar
Kam. ug. hard coal (mining product)
can. channel
rope. rope factory
kaol. kaolin (mining product), kaolin processing plant
doodle Karakul farming state farm
quarantine quarantine
Couch. rubber plant, rubber plantation
ceramic ceramic factory
kin. cinematographic industry (factory, plant)
brick brick factory
CL clinker (road surface material)
klkh. collective farm
leather tannery
coke. coke plant
combo feed mill
compress Art. compressor station
con. horse breeding farm, stud farm
cond. confectionery factory
hemp hemp-growing state farm
cons. cannery
boiler basin
koch. nomadic
cat shed
Kr., Red. Red, -aya, -oe, -ye (part of its own name
crepe. fortress
croup cereal factory, grain mill
godfather idol
chickens resort

L
lag lagoon
lacquer paint factory
Lion. Left, -aya, -oe, -s (part of proper name)
forest forester's house
forester forestry
lesp. sawmill
years. letnik, summer camp
treat hospital
LZS forest protection station
lim. estuary
foliage larch (forest species)
flax flax processing plant

M
M metal (bridge material)
m. cape
poppy. pasta factory
M., Mal. Small, -aya, -oe, -y (part of its own name)
margar. margarine factory
oil oil mill
oil butter factory
mash. machine-building plant
furniture furniture factory
medpl. copper smelter, plant
copper copper developments
meth metallurgical plant, metal products plant
met.-arr. metalworking plant
meth Art. weather station
fur. fur factory
MZhS machine-livestock station
min. mineral spring
MMS machine reclamation station
could. grave, graves
they say dairy plant
mol.-meat dairy and meat farm
mon. monastery
marble marble (product of extraction)
MTM machine and tractor workshop
MTF dairy farm
music instr. musical instruments(factory)
torment flour mill
soap soap factory

N
obs. observation tower
fill well filling capacity
national env. national district
invalid inactive
oil oil production, oil refinery, oil storage facility, oil rig
Lower Lower, -yaya, -ee, -ie (part of its own name)
low lowland
Nick. nickel (mining product)
New New, -aya, -oe, -e (part of proper name)

ABOUT
island, islands, islands
oaz. oasis
observ. observatory
ovr. ravine
sheep sheep breeding state farm
fireproof refractory products (factory)
lake lake
Oct. Oktyabrsky, -aya, -oe, -ie (part of its own name)
op. greenhouse
ost. stop point (railway)
dept. temporary storage facility state farm department
OTF sheep farm
willing hunting hut

P
P sandy (river bottom soil), arable land
p., village village
memory monument
steam. ferry
parf. perfume and cosmetics factory
pass. apiary
lane pass (mountain), transportation
dog. sand (mining product)
cave cave
beer brewery
Pete. nursery
food conc. food concentrates (plant)
pl. platform (railway)
plastic plastics (factory)
plat. platinum (mined product)
breeding breeding livestock farm
plodovin. fruit-growing state farm
fruit fruit and vegetable farm
fruit-yang fruit and berry state farm
peninsula
burial stagnation border post
burial kmd. border commandant's office
loaded loading and unloading area
pl. fire tower (depot, barn)
polygame printing industry (combine, factory)
floor. Art. field camp
por. threshold, thresholds
village pl. landing pad
fast. dv. inn
pond, strait, passage (under the overpass)
Right Right, -aya, -oe, -s (part of proper name)
Priest. pier
Prov. provinces
wire wire factory
prot. duct
strand spinning mill
PS Village Council
PTF poultry farm
put. n. waypoint

R
glad. radio factory
radio station radio station
once. traveling
development ruins
resolution destroyed
res. rubber products (plant, factory)
rice. rice-growing state farm
r. worker's village
PC District Council (RC - district center)
ore mine
hands sleeve
fish fishing (plant, factory)
fish village fishing village

WITH
rank sanatoriums
cap. barn
sah. sugar factory
sah. cane sugar cane (plantation)
NE North-Eastern
Holy Saint, -aya, -oe, -s (part of its own name)
St. over
beets beet growing state farm
pig pig-breeding state farm
lead lead mine
temporary storage facility state farm
North Northern, -aya, -oe, -y (part of its own name)
sat down Art. breeding station
seed seed-growing state farm
chamois sulfur spring, sulfur mine
NW North-West
strength silo tower
silica silicate industry (plant, factory)
sk. rock, rocks
skip. turpentine plant
skl. warehouse
slate shale developments
resin tar factory
Sov. Soviet, -aya, -oe, -ie (part of its own name)
soy soybean state farm
Sol. salt water, saltworks, salt mines, mines
sop. hill
variety. Art. marshalling yard
saved. Art. rescue station
speech. match factory
Wed, Wed. Middle, -yaya, -ee, -ie (part of proper name)
SS Selsovet (rural settlement center)
Sr., Star. Old, -an, -oe, -y (part of proper name)
herd stadium
became. steel mill
mill. encampment, camp
stb. pillar
glass glass factory
Art. pumping pumping station
page under construction
pp. m. building materials factory
STF pig farm
court. ship repair, shipyard
bitches cloth factory
dry dry well
sushi drying room
agricultural agricultural
agricultural mash. agricultural engineering (factory)

T
T hard (river bottom soil)
tab. tobacco-growing state farm, tobacco factory
there. customs
text. textile industry(combine, factory)
ter. waste heap (waste rock dump near mines)
tech. technical school
Comrade Art. freight station
tol. roofing felt plant
peat. peat developments
tract. tractor plant
trick. knitting factory
tun. tunnel
CHP combined heat and power plant

U
ug. brown coal (mining product)
ug.- sour. carbon source
Ukrainian strengthening
ur. tract
ug. gorge

F
f. fort
fact. trading post (trading settlement)
fan. plywood factory
porcelain porcelain and earthenware factory
fer. farm
fz. fanza
firn. firn field (snow field of grainy snow in high mountain areas)
phosph. phosphate mine
ft. fountain

X
x., hut. farm
hizh. hut
chem. chemical plant
chemical-pharmaceutical chemical-pharmaceutical plant
bread bread factory
clap cotton-growing state farm, cotton gin plant
cold. fridge
hr. ridge
chromium. chrome mine
crunch. crystal factory

C
C cement concrete (road surface material)
Ts., Tsentr. Central, -aya, -oe, -e (part of its own name)
color. non-ferrous metallurgy (plant)
cem. cement plant
teas tea-growing state farm
tea tea factory
h. met. ferrous metallurgy (factory)
chug iron foundry

Sh
check mine
shiv. shivera (rapids on the rivers of Siberia)
cipher slate factory
school school
Slag slag (road covering material)
Shl. gateway
sword twine factory
pcs. gallery

SCH
Crushed stone (road covering material)
slot alkaline spring

E
Elev. elevator
email subst. electrical substation
el.-st. power plant
email -tech. electrical plant
ef.-oil essential oil crops state farm, essential oil processing plant

Yu
SE South-Eastern
South Southern, -aya, -oe, -e (part of its own name)
SW South-West
legal yurt

I
yag. berry garden