§3. Individual features of attention
Attention, like most mental processes, has certain stages of development. The lower stages are represented by involuntary attention, and the higher stages are voluntary. Direct attention is also a lower form of its development in comparison with indirect attention.
The history of the development of attention, like many other mental functions, was tried by L.S. Vygotsky in the richness of the cultural-historical concept of their formation. In his opinion, the history of a child's attention is the history of the development of the organization of his behavior, and the key to the genetic understanding of attention should be sought not inside, but outside the child's personality.
L. Vigogsky writes that from the very first days of a child's life, the development of his attention takes place in an environment in which there is a double series of stimuli that cause attention. The first row is the surrounding objects that attract the attention of the child with their bright, unusual properties. The second row is the language of an adult, the words that he pronounces and act as stimuli - instructions that direct the involuntary attention of the child.
The processes of voluntary attention, directed by the language of an adult, are for the child rather processes of his external discipline than self-regulation. Gradually, using the same means of mastering attention in relation to itself, the child proceeds to control his behavior, that is, to voluntary attention.
According to observations and experimental studies, the sequence of development of children's attention looks like this.
1. The first weeks - months of life. The appearance of an orienting reflex as an objective, congenital sign of the child's involuntary attention. The child at first reacts only to external stimuli, and only in the event of a sharp change (unexpected loud sounds, transition from darkness to bright light, etc.). Starting from the third month, the child becomes more and more interested in objects that are related to her life. At five to seven months, a child can look at a certain object for a long time, feel it. The child shows particular interest in bright, shiny things. This allows us to speak about a sufficient level of development of involuntary attention in a child.
2. End of the first year of life. Approximately doslidninka activity arises as a means of the future development of voluntary attention.
3. Beginning of the second year of life. The beginnings of voluntary attention appear, which is associated with the processes of raising a child. Adults gradually accustom the child to do not what she wants, but what she needs to do. Consciousness begins to emerge, although still in a primitive form.
4. Second - third year of life. Great importance for the development of arbitrary attention has a game. During the game, the child learns to coordinate his actions in accordance with the objectives of the game and its rules. In parallel with voluntary attention, on the basis of sensory experience, involuntary attention also develops.
5. Four and a half - five years. The ability to direct one's attention under the influence of complex instructions from an adult appears. The child gets acquainted with an increasing number of objects and phenomena, constant conversations with parents, games in which children imitate the behavior of adults, manipulation of objects - all this enriches the child's experience, develops his interests and attention.
6. Five - six years. The main feature of this stage is the instability of voluntary attention. The child is easily distracted by extraneous stimuli, attention is quite emotional - the child is still poorly in control of his feelings. Unlike voluntary attention, involuntary attention is quite stable, long-lasting and concentrated. Gradually, through exercises and volitional efforts, the ability to control one's attention develops.
7. School age. Further development and improvement of voluntary attention occurs due to discipline, which contributes to the formation of control over one's own behavior. In the primary grades, the child is dominated by involuntary attention and she still cannot fully control her behavior in the classroom. Therefore, the teacher should strive to make his lessons bright, emotional, often change the form of presentation of educational material. This is also due to the predominance of visual-figurative thinking at this age.
In the upper grades, voluntary attention reaches a fairly high level of development. A high school student can focus on certain types of activities for a long time, control his behavior. At this age, the quality of attention is influenced not only by the conditions of education, but also by age-related characteristics associated with physiological changes occurring during this period. This is accompanied by increased fatigue, irritability, decreased performance.
46. The concept of attention: functions, properties, types. The development of attention.
Attention is the concentration of the subject's activity in this moment time on any real or ideal object.
Attention is a dynamic characteristic of the course of cognitive activity: it expresses the predominant connection of mental activity with a specific object on which it is focused as if in focus. Attention is a selective focus on one or another object and focus on it, deepening into the cognitive activity directed at the object.
Consider the main types of attention 1 .arbitrary - consciously directed and regulated attention, in which the subject consciously chooses the object to which it is directed. Arbitrary attention takes place where the object to which attention is directed does not in itself attract it. Voluntary attention is always mediated. Voluntary attention is always active (according to James). And one more characteristic of voluntary attention is that it is always an act of will; 2..involuntary. Associated with reflex installations. It is installed and maintained independently from conscious intention of a person
Voluntary attention is formed from involuntary. But voluntary attention can turn into involuntary. The highest forms of voluntary attention arise in a person in the process of labor. They are the product of historical development. Labor is aimed at satisfying human needs. The product of this labor is therefore of immediate interest. But the receipt of this product is associated with an activity that, in terms of its content and method of execution, may not arouse direct interest. Therefore, the performance of this activity requires a transition from involuntary to voluntary attention. At the same time, attention should be all the more concentrated and prolonged, the more complex a person's labor activity becomes in the process of historical development. Labor demands and it brings up the highest forms of human attention. 3. sensual attention (refers to perception); 4. intellectual attention (applies to reproduced performances). Main Attention Properties:
1. Concentration attention - the opposite of its dispersion - means the presence of a connection with a certain object or side of activity and expresses the intensity of this connection. Concentration is concentration. Concentration of attention means that there is a focus in which mental or conscious activity is collected. Concentration of attention is the ability of a person to focus on the main thing in his activity, being distracted from all that. What is currently beyond the scope of the task being solved by him.
2.volume - the number of homogeneous objects that captures attention. This indicator largely depends on the organization of the memorized material and its nature and is usually taken equal to 5 ± 2. The amount of attention is a variable value, depending on how interconnected the content on which attention is focused, and on the ability to meaningfully link and structure the material.
3.distributable attention - the ability of a person to have several heterogeneous objects in his mind at the same time or to perform a complex activity consisting of many simultaneous operations. The distribution of attention depends on a number of conditions, primarily on how different objects are related to each other and how automated the actions between which attention should be distributed are. The more closely the objects are connected and the greater the automation, the easier it is to distribute attention. The ability to distribute attention is exercised.
4.resilience attention - the duration during which the concentration of attention is maintained. Experimental studies have shown that attention is primarily subject to periodic involuntary fluctuations. Periods of attention fluctuations are usually 2-3 seconds, reaching up to 12 seconds. The most essential condition for the stability of attention is the ability to reveal new aspects and connections in the subject on which it is focused. Our attention becomes less prone to fluctuations, more stable when we are included in the resolution of certain tasks, in intellectual operations we reveal new content in the subject of our perception or our thought. In order for attention to any subject to be maintained, awareness of it must be a dynamic process. The subject must develop before our eyes, reveal before us all new content. Monotony dulls attention, monotony quenches it. Sustained attention is a form of objective consciousness. It presupposes the unity of subject relatedness of diverse content.
Thus, a meaningful coherence that combines diverse, dynamic content into a more or less harmonious system, centered around one center, related to one subject, is the main prerequisite for sustained attention.
The stability of attention, of course, depends, in addition, on a number of conditions: the characteristics of the material, the degree of its difficulty, familiarity, comprehensibility, the attitude of the subject towards it, the degree of his interest in this material, on the individual characteristics of the individual,
5.switchability attention - the ability to quickly turn off from some settings and turn on new ones, corresponding to changed conditions. The ability to switch means the flexibility of attention. Switchability means the conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another. The ease of switching attention in different people is different, it depends on a number of conditions. These include the relationship between the content of the previous and subsequent activities and the relationship of the subject to each of them: the more interesting the previous and
the less interesting the subsequent activity, the more difficult the switchover is obviously. A certain role in switching attention is also played by the individual characteristics of the subject, in particular his temperament. Switching attention can be trained.
6.selectivity attention is related to the possibility of successful tuning (in the presence of interference) to the perception of information related to a conscious goal.
7.distractibility attention is the result of a lack of volitional effort and interest in an object or activity.
Attention is inextricably linked with consciousness as a whole, and therefore with all aspects of consciousness. Indeed, the role of emotional factors is clearly reflected in the dependence of attention on interest, which is especially important for attention. We have already noted the importance of thought processes. The role of the will finds direct expression in the fact of voluntary attention. Since attention can differ in various properties, which, as experience shows, are largely independent of each other, it is possible, based on different properties of attention, to distinguish between different types of attention, namely: 1) wide and narrow attention - depending on the volume; 2) well and poorly distributed; 3) fast and slow switchable; 4) concentrated and fluctuating; 5) stable and unstable.
The development of attention. The development of attention in children takes place in the process of education and upbringing. Of decisive importance for its development is the formation of interests and accustoming to systematic, disciplined work. Vygotsky wrote that the history of a child's attention is the history of the development of the organization of his behavior, that the key to a genetic understanding, that the key to a genetic understanding of attention should be sought not inside, but outside the child's personality.
In the development of attention in a child, one can note, first of all, its diffuse, unstable character in early childhood. So, if a child is given a toy, and after it another one, then he will immediately let go of the first one. However, this provision is not absolute. Along with the above fact, another fact must be taken into account: it happens that some object will attract the attention of the child in such a way that, having begun to manipulate him, nothing can distract him.
Until senior preschool, and sometimes even primary school age, the child has involuntary attention. The development of voluntary attention is one of the most important further acquisitions, closely related to the formation of the child's will.
Arbitrary attention does not mature in the body, but is formed in the child during his communication with adults. As Vygotsky showed, in the early phases of development, the function of voluntary attention is divided between two people - an adult and a child. The first singles out an object from the environment, pointing to it and calling it a word, the child responds to this signal by tracing a gesture, grasping an object or repeating a word. Thus, this object stands out for the child from the external field. Subsequently, children begin to set goals on their own. It should also be noted the close connection of voluntary attention with speech. The development of voluntary attention in a child is manifested first in the subordination of his behavior to the speech instructions of adults, and then, as he masters speech, in the subordination of his behavior to his own speech instructions. Vygotsky writes that from the very first days of a child's life, the development of his attention takes place in an environment that includes the so-called double row of stimuli that evoke attention. The first row is the surrounding objects themselves, which, with their bright, unusual properties, attract the attention of the child. On the other hand, it is the speech of an adult, the words he utters, which initially act as stimuli-indications that direct the involuntary attention of the child. Together with the mastery of active speech, the child begins to control the primary process of his own attention, and first - in relation to other people, orienting their own attention with the word addressed to them in the right direction, and then - in relation to himself.
In the development of attention in a child, its intellectualization is essential, which takes place in the process of the child's mental development: attention, based first on mental content, begins to switch to mental connections. As a result, the scope of the child's attention expands. The development of volume is in close connection with the mental development of the child.
At the senior preschool age concentration of attention and its stability quickly develops. At primary school age, voluntary attention and all the properties of attention continue to develop. But the next sharp jump in its development will occur already in adolescence, when attention, like all other cognitive functions, is intellectualized.
Definition of attention and levels of development according to Dobrynin Attention as an orientation and concentration of our mental activity. By direction, we mean the choice of activity and the maintenance of this choice. By concentration, we mean the deepening of this activity and the removal, distraction from any other activity. Levels of development of attention. 1. passive attention. A) Forced attention The cause of such forced attention is primarily extremely strong, intense stimuli. A loud shot, a bright flash of lightning, a strong push - all this will inevitably tear us away from our usual activities and force us to pay attention to strong irritation. B) involuntary attention. The length of the annoyance can also draw our attention. Weak short sound, we may not notice. But if it lasts long enough, it will unwittingly attract us. This is especially true not of continuous, but of intermittent irritation, now arising, now disappearing, now intensifying, now weakening. Finally, a moving object grabs our attention more than a stationary one. C) Habitual attention. We may not notice a continuous stimulus, such as the noise of a motor, if we are used to it. But as soon as it stops, we immediately notice it. The contrast matters a lot. But the contrast largely depends, after all, on ourselves, on our attitude to surrounding stimuli. Therefore, in passive attention, some of our activity can sometimes be manifested. 2. Arbitrary attention. This attention really fully expresses the activity of the individual. We say that voluntary attention is an act of our will. We say that our activity is expressed in our will. Will is the conscious decision-making and execution. However elementary and simple an act of will may be, it presupposes a conscious presentation of a goal and a plan of action. Voluntary attention presupposes this consciousness of purpose and the planning of our actions. Active attention is expressed in the expedient direction of our activity in a certain direction. 3. Spontaneous attention (after arbitrary) is the result of the development of the personality and its qualities. This type of attention does not entirely coincide with either voluntary or involuntary attention. The fact is that when we are interested in work that initially did not seem to attract us, then no more volitional efforts are required or almost no more volitional efforts are required to continue this work. If initially we took it with difficulty, for example, reading a difficult book, then the more we read into the book, the more it begins to occupy us by itself, and our attention from arbitrary becomes, as it were, involuntary.
Galperin on the nature of attention and the ways of its formation. The nature of attention according to Galperin. The most diverse views on the nature of attention are based on two cardinal facts: 1. Attention nowhere appears as an independent process. It reveals itself both to oneself and to external observation as the direction, attunement and concentration of any mental activity, therefore, only as a side or property of this activity. 2. Attention does not have its own separate, specific product. Its result is the improvement of every activity to which it joins. Meanwhile, it is the presence of a characteristic product that serves as the main evidence of the presence of a corresponding function. Attention does not have such a product, and this is most of all against the evaluation of attention as a separate form of mental activity. Formation of attention. The formation of mental actions eventually leads to the formation of thought, while thought is a double formation: the conceivable objective content and actually thinking about it as a mental action directed at this content. Analysis further showed that the second part of this dyad is nothing but attention, and that this internal attention is formed from control over the objective content of the action. Understanding the psyche as an orienting activity means approaching it not from the side of “phenomena of consciousness”, but from the side of its objective role in behavior. Unlike any other mental orientation, it offers an image - the environment of action and the action itself - an image on the basis of which the action is controlled. Image-based action management requires mapping a task to its execution. Therefore, the role is a necessary and essential part of such management. Forms of control can be different, the degree of their development - too; but without control over the course of action, its management—this main task of orienting activity—would be impossible at all. In one form or another, with varying degrees of isolation and development, control is an integral element of the psyche as an orienting activity. Let us assume that attention is precisely such a function of control—after all, it even comes close in some respects to its usual understanding—and the heaviest of all objections to attention as an independent form of mental activity, the absence of a separate character of the product, immediately disappears.
Broadbent model. Experimental facts and comments. Theory of early selection. This stage was completed by the model of the information processing system developed by the English psychologist Donald Broadbent. It should be noted that the author described the first versions of his model in the form of mechanical devices. The starting position of the model is the idea that the human CNS is an information transmission channel with a limited bandwidth (capacity). According to D. Bradbent, a channel of limited capacity can transmit only not a large number of information. C - stage sensory parallel processing; sensory storage. P - stage perceptual, sequential processing; only those impressions can pass which have some common physical attribute: direction, intensity, tone, color, and so on. Filter- protects the P - stage from overload, blocking the inputs of all but one of the relevant stimulation channel. Channel - in psychology it is defined as a conductor or way of transferring sensory messages of a class that can be rejected or selected for further processing. Treisman. Based on the data of her own studies of other materials of experimental criticism of the filter model, E. Treisman began to revise the first concept of early selection formulated by D. Broadbent. She presented the main ideas of such a revision in the form of the so-called attenuator model. According to this model, after analysis by all incoming stimulation at the first sensory stage, both messages enter the filter. Based on a certain physical attribute, the filter attenuates (attenuates) the intensity of irrelevant signals and freely passes the signals of the relevant channel. As it turned out later, this assumption is supported by the data of psychophysiological studies. The evoked potentials for an incomprehensible message are much weaker than those for an intelligible one. Both irrelevant and irrelevant stimuli can be processed down to the analysis of meaning: relevant as a rule, and irrelevant sometimes. E. Treisman suggested that each familiar word stored in the system of long-term memory in the form of a dictionary unit.
INTRODUCTION
The flow of information, the expansion of human contacts, the development of diverse forms of mass culture, the growth of the pace of life lead to an increase in the amount of knowledge necessary for the life of a modern person. The ongoing changes in society had an impact on the development of children who were actively involved in the whirlpool of our turbulent life, and put forward new requirements in general. Pre-school education began to be regarded as the first stage in the entire system of lifelong learning. The preschool institution is designed to create conditions for the intellectual, creative, emotional, physical development of the child and prepare him for school. One of the indispensable conditions for successful schooling is the development of arbitrary, deliberate attention in preschool age. The school makes demands on the arbitrariness of children's attention in terms of the ability to act without distractions, follow instructions and control the result.
Children who begin to study at school most often suffer from absent-mindedness or underdevelopment of their attention. It is just as important to develop and improve attention as it is to teach writing, counting, and reading. attention is expressed in the exact execution of the actions associated with it. The images obtained with careful perception are distinguished by clarity and distinctness. In the presence of attention, thought processes proceed faster and more correctly, movements are performed more accurately and clearly.
The attention of a preschooler reflects his interests in relation to the surrounding objects and the actions performed with them. The child is focused on an object or action only until his interest in this object or action fades. The appearance of a new object causes a switch of attention, so children rarely do the same thing for a long time.
At present, the problems of developing attention and conducting psycho-correctional work with children with attention disorders have become relevant. However, recommendations for practical psychologists on these issues relate mainly to elementary school and do not cover the experience of organizing psycho-correctional work with children up to school age, although today for further successful learning it is necessary to identify and correct attention disorders already in older children. preschool age.
Attention is always focus on something. In the selection of one object from the mass of others, the so-called selectivity of attention is manifested: interest in one is simultaneous inattention to another. Attention in itself is not a special cognitive process. it is inherent in any cognitive process (perception, thinking, memory) and acts as the ability to organize this process.
Attention is one of the phenomena of orienting-investigative activity. It is a mental action aimed at the content of an image, thought or other phenomenon. Attention plays an essential role in the regulation of intellectual activity. According to the role in the regulation of intellectual activity. According to P.Ya. Galperin, "attention nowhere appears as an independent process, it is revealed as an orientation, mood and concentration of any mental activity on its object, only as a side or property of this activity."
Attention does not have its own separate and specific product. Its result is the improvement of every activity with which it accompanies.
Attention is mental condition, which characterizes the intensity of cognitive activity and is expressed in its concentration on a relatively narrow area (actions, object, phenomenon).
There are the following forms of attention
Sensory (perceptual);
Intellectual (thinking);
Motor (motor).
The main functions of attention are:
Activation of necessary and braking of unnecessary at the moment
mental and physiological processes;
Purposeful organized selection of incoming information (basic
selective function of attention);
Retention, preservation of images of a certain subject content until those
until the goal is reached;
Ensuring long-term concentration, activity on the same
Regulation and control of the course of activities.
Attention is connected with the interests, inclinations, vocation of a person, such personal qualities as observation, the ability to note subtle, but significant signs in objects and phenomena, also depend on his characteristics.
Attention consists in the fact that a certain idea or sensation occupies a dominant place in consciousness, displacing others. This greater degree of awareness of the given impression is the basic fact or effects, namely:
Analytical effect of attention - this representation becomes more detailed,
in it we notice more details;
Fixing effect - the idea becomes more stable in the mind, not so
disappears easily;
The reinforcing effect is the impression, at least in most cases,
becomes stronger: due to the inclusion of attention, a weak sound seems
a little louder.
DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION
The attention of the child at the beginning of preschool age reflects his interest in the surrounding objects and the actions performed with them. The child is focused until the interest fades. The appearance of a new object immediately causes a switch of attention to it. Therefore, children rarely do the same thing for a long time.
During preschool age, due to the complication of children's activities and their movement in general mental development, attention acquires greater concentration and stability. So if younger preschoolers can play the same 30-40 minutes, then by the age of five or six the duration of the game increases to two hours. This is explained by the fact that the game of six-year-olds reflects more complex actions and relationships of people and interest in it is supported by the constant introduction of new situations. The stability of children's attention also increases when looking at pictures, listening to stories and fairy tales. Thus, the duration of looking at a picture approximately doubles by the end of preschool age, a six-year-old child is better aware of the picture than a younger preschooler, highlights more interesting aspects and details in it.
DEVELOPMENT OF VOLUNTARY ATTENTION
The main change in attention at preschool age is that for the first time children begin to control their attention, consciously direct it to certain objects, phenomena, and hold on to them, using some means for this. The origins of voluntary attention lie outside the personality of the child. This means that the development of involuntary attention by itself does not lead to the emergence of voluntary attention. The latter is formed due to the fact that adults include the child in new activities and, with the help of certain means, direct and organize his attention. By guiding the child's attention, adults give him the same means by which he subsequently begins to control attention himself.
In one experiment with children, they played a game of questions and answers similar to the game of forfeits with prohibitions: "Yes" and "No" do not say, do not take white and black. During the game, the child was asked a series of questions. The child had to answer as quickly as possible and at the same time follow the instructions.
1) do not name prohibited colors, such as black and white;
2) do not name the same color twice;
The experiment was designed in such a way that the child could fulfill all the conditions of the game, but this required constant attention from him, and in most cases the preschoolers did not cope with the task.
A different result was obtained when an adult offered the child a set of colored cards to help, which became external aids for successfully focusing attention on the conditions of the game. The most ingenious children independently began to use these aids. They singled out the forbidden colors, white and black, put aside the corresponding cards and, during the game, used the cards that lay in front of them.
In addition to the SITUATIONAL MEANS that organize attention in connection with a specific particular task, there is a UNIVERSAL MEANS OF ORGANIZING ATTENTION - SPEECH. Initially, adults organize the attention of the child with the help of verbal instructions. He is reminded of the need to perform a given action, taking into account at the same time or other circumstances (When you fold the turret, you choose the largest ring. That's right. And where is the largest now? Remember !!! etc.). Later, the child himself begins to designate verbally those objects and phenomena that need to be paid attention to in order to achieve the desired result.
As the PLANNING FUNCTION OF SPEECH develops, the child acquires the ability to organize his attention in advance on the upcoming activity, to formulate verbally what he should be guided by.
The importance of verbal self-instruction for the organization of attention is clearly seen from the following example. Preschool children were asked to select from ten cards with images of animals those that had at least one of the indicated images (for example, a chicken or a horse), but in no case should they take cards that had a forbidden image (for example, a bear). The child selected the cards several times in a row. Initially, he was not given any instructions as to the mode of action. Under these conditions, he hardly completed the task, often lost his way. However, the situation changed when the child was asked to repeat the instructions aloud (after carefully examining the images on the cards, he remembered which cards could and could not be taken). Observations have shown that after pronouncing instructions, almost all children, starting from senior preschool age, give correct solutions, even if new animals are introduced into subsequent tasks. Children actively used speech to organize their attention in the process of selecting cards.
During preschool age, the use of speech to organize one's own attention increases dramatically. This is manifested, in particular, in the fact that, when performing tasks according to the instructions of an adult, children of older preschool age pronounce the instructions ten to twelve times more often than younger preschoolers. Thus, voluntary attention is formed at preschool age with a general increase in the role of speech in regulating the child's behavior.
AGE AND PEDAGOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY ANALYSIS OF THE FORMATION OF MECHANISMS OF RANDOM ATTENTION IN PRESCHOOL CHILDREN* S.G. JAKOBSON, N.M. SAFONOVA This work is devoted to an experimental analysis of one of the typical cases of voluntary attention in terms of the internal actions or operations performed in this case. Already in the very first attempts at a psychological consideration of attention, that form of it was singled out, which began to be called active, volitional or voluntary attention. The subject of analysis continues to be the psychological characteristics and nature of voluntary attention, which provide its mechanism and genesis. In the initial phenomenological characterization of this form, the need for conscious efforts to focus attention in a certain direction was always emphasized, its pulsating nature and other features accessible to introspection were noted (W. James). The transition to characterizing the psychological nature of voluntary attention begins with an attempt to understand its motivation. T. Ribot, who put forward this idea, believed that the source of those "additional forces" that support the corresponding efforts are "natural engines that deviate from a direct goal and are used to achieve another goal." This implies an understanding of the genesis of voluntary attention as a change in the system of its motivation. At stage I, primary feelings such as fear act in this function; on II - secondary: pride, competition; on III - attention moves to the area of habit. N.N. Lange noted such an important internal difference voluntary attention as that the purpose of the process is known in advance to the subject. In other words, he has, although incomplete and pale, preliminary knowledge about the object of attention. A special place is also occupied by the considerations of many authors about the physiological mechanisms of the feeling of effort experienced by a person. The study of the actual psychological mechanisms of voluntary attention can be dated to the works of L.S. Vygotsky. In the context of the ideas of the French sociological school about the culturally mediated nature of voluntary behavior, it was experimentally shown that the genesis of voluntary attention includes the conscious use of various stimuli-means that have a sign character. Within the framework of P.Ya. Galperin that attention is an activity of control, the mechanism of voluntary attention is considered as an abbreviated form of control over action. Such control is carried out on the basis of a predetermined plan and with the help of predetermined criteria and methods for their application. These approaches to understanding the mechanisms of voluntary attention take us to a new plane of its analysis. Indeed, both the use of funds and the exercise of control presuppose the commission of a certain complex of external and internal actions or operations. It is expedient to analyze them in the context of activity theory or the so-called activity approach. The activity approach was proposed in 1934 by S.L. Rubinstein as a general philosophical, methodological basis Soviet psychology. He made it possible to pose some theoretical problems of psychology in a new way, first of all, the problem of the relationship between external behavior and consciousness, which was very debatable at that time. However, being limited by these general methodological frameworks, it has not been implemented in empirical studies. Another direction of the activity approach was created by A.N. Leontiev in the late 30s - early 40s. and contains ideas about the structure of activity, its components and the main stages of phylogenetic development. The characterization of activity as a reality structured in a special way immediately opened up new possibilities for empirical study and gave rise to a number of promising directions in the study of child and educational psychology. The initial components of the structure of activity - needs, motives, actions, operations - have been studied very unevenly. Significant number experimental work was devoted to the problem of motives. The problem of actions has been studied mainly in the context of internalization, i.e. transformation of external actions into internal, performed in the mind. The main attention was paid to the actions constituting the processes of thinking (P. Ya. Galperin, Ya. A. Ponomarev). Only in the mid 60s. individual works appear, aimed at analyzing the composition of those internal operations that must be performed to achieve a certain result. The first work in this direction was the study of N.S. Pantina, in which it was shown that such a seemingly simple process as picking up a children's pyramid according to a model can be built on the basis of different and rather complex sets of operations. Unfortunately, this line of research has not received further continuation, although it seems to us very promising both in general for educational psychology and, in particular, in the analysis of voluntary attention in children. Analysis of those external and internal operations that the child must perform in order to successful use stimulus-means, reveals the prospects of this approach (L.S. Vygotsky, A.N. Leontiev). In the experiments of L.S. Vygotsky on studying the role of means in mastering children's attention, the subjects, answering various questions of the experimenter, were not supposed to name some colors. To help fulfill this requirement, they were given two kinds of means - cards with forbidden colors and cards with allowed colors. The author notes that in the second case, the children's answers were less meaningful, but does not explain the reasons for the phenomenon. An analysis of the internal operations required in each case reveals the difference between these two situations. The game is built on the fact that the usual answer to decisive questions involves naming the forbidden color. Therefore, when answering a question about the color of an object, in the first case, the child must first look at the “forbidden” cards, and if the color that he wants to name is shown on the card, he must restrain himself and think about how it can be replaced. So, when it is forbidden to call red, children say that tomatoes are sometimes green. The answer involves an internal selection of other colors that are suitable in this case, and the answer, of course, is more meaningful. If, as in the second case, the child has cards with allowed colors in front of him, he can simply name any of them for an answer, without thinking about the meaning. Thus, the expediency of using certain means is essentially determined by the actions or operations for their use. * The work was supported by the Russian Humanitarian Foundation; project No. 98-06-08232. |
CORRELATION OF TYPES OF ATTENTION
Although children of four or six years of age begin to master voluntary attention, involuntary attention remains predominant throughout preschool childhood. It is difficult for children to concentrate on monotonous and unattractive activities for them, while in the process of playing or solving an emotionally charged productive task, they can remain attentive for a long time. This feature of attention is one of the reasons why preschool education cannot be based on tasks that require constant tension of voluntary attention. The elements of the game used in the classroom, productive activities, frequent changes in the forms of activity allow maintaining the attention of children at a fairly high level.
It should be noted that starting from senior preschool age, they become able to keep their attention on actions that acquire intellectually significant interest for them (puzzle games, riddles, tasks). training type). The stability of attention in intellectual activity noticeably increases by the age of seven.
By the end of preschool age in children, the ability to voluntary attention begins to develop intensively. In the future, voluntary attention becomes an indispensable condition for the organization of educational activities at school.
TYPES OF ATTENTION
Attention has lower and higher forms. The former are represented by involuntary attention, the latter by voluntary attention.
| Kind of attention | Occurrence condition | Main characteristic | Mechanism |
| involuntary | The action of a strong, contrasting or significant stimulus that causes an emotional response | Involuntariness, ease of occurrence and switching | Orienting reflex or dominant, characterizing a more or less stable interest of the individual |
| Arbitrary | staging (Adoption) | Orientation according to the task. Requires willpower, tiresome | The leading role of the second signaling system (words, speech) |
| Post-voluntary | Entry into activities and the resulting interest | Maintaining focus and relieving stress | Dominant characterizing the interest that arose in the course of this activity |
Attention can be passive (involuntary) or active (voluntary). These types of attention differ from each other only in their complexity.
There are cases when attention is involuntarily directed to something, i.e. one gets the impression that we do not pay attention to objects or phenomena, and they “take by storm” our consciousness due to their intensity.
Factors that determine involuntary attention:
The intensity of the stimulus;
The quality of the stimulus;
Repetition;
The suddenness of the appearance of the object;
Object movement;
The novelty of the object;
Consent with the present content of consciousness.
The arbitrariness of attention develops along with the formation of its individual properties. There is also a third stage in the formation of attention - it consists in returning to involuntary attention. This type of attention is called "post-voluntary". concept post-voluntary attention was put into use by N.F. Dobrynin. Post-voluntary attention arises on the basis of voluntary attention and consists in focusing on an object due to its value (significance, interest) for the individual.
Thus, three stages of development of attention can be distinguished:
Primary attention, caused by a variety of stimuli that produce a strong effect on the nervous system;
Secondary attention - focus on one object, despite the presence of others (differentiation);
Post-voluntary attention, when an object is held in attention without special effort.
INVOLVED ATTENTION
Involuntary (unintentional) attention is called attention, which is caused by certain features of the objects acting at the moment without the intention of being attentive to them. The emergence of involuntary attention is determined by physical, psychophysiological and mental factors and is associated with the general orientation of the personality. It arises without volitional effort.
Causes of involuntary attention:
Objective features of objects and phenomena (their intensity, novelty, dynamism, contrast);
Structural organization (combined objects are perceived more easily than randomly scattered ones);
The intensity of the object - a stronger sound, a brighter poster, etc., is more likely to attract attention;
Novelty, unusual objects;
Sharp change of objects;
Subjective factors in which the selective attitude of a person to the environment is manifested;
The ratio of the stimulus to the needs (what meets the needs attracts attention first of all).
The main function of involuntary attention is the quick and correct orientation of a person in constantly changing conditions, the selection of those objects that can have the greatest meaning in life at the moment.
Depending on the internal conditions, three types of involuntary attention are distinguished.
determinants forced attention presumably lie in the species experience of the organism. Since the learning of this form of attention plays a minor role, it is called innate, natural or instinctive. In this case, external and internal activity is reduced to a minimum or takes on an automatic character.
The second variety of involuntary attention depends not so much on the specific, but on the individual experience of the subject. It also develops on an instinctive basis, but in a delayed manner, in the process of spontaneous learning and adaptation of a person to certain conditions of life. To the extent that these processes and conditions coincide or do not coincide among representatives of different age and social groups, general and individual zones of objects of attention and inattention are formed. Such Attention can be called involuntary. The coercive nature and emotional impact of the impressions, thoughts, ideas that cause it are relatively small. Unlike the stimulus of forced attention, the objects of involuntary attention penetrate the area of consciousness at moments of relative inactivity, periods of rest and actualization of needs. Under these conditions, attention is drawn to nearby objects, voices, and so on.
The third type of involuntary attention can be called habitual attention. Some authors consider it a consequence or a special case of voluntary attention, while others consider it a transitional form. On the part of the subject, this form of attention is due to attitudes, the intention to perform this or that activity.
Forced, involuntary, habitual attention as a variety of involuntary attention is united by the fact that their motives lie outside the human consciousness.
Unintentional attention is characterized by the following features:
A person is not previously prepared for the perception of an object or action;
The intensity of unintentional attention is determined by the characteristics of stimuli;
Not long in time (attention lasts as long as the corresponding stimuli act, and if it is not fixed, it stops at the end of their action). These features of unintentional attention make it unable to provide a good quality of this or that activity.
ARBITRARY ATTENTION
The source of arbitrary (deliberate) attention is entirely determined by subjective factors. Arbitrary attention is used to achieve the goal set and accepted for execution. Depending on the nature of these conditions and on the system of activity in which acts of voluntary attention are included, the following varieties of it are distinguished.
1. The processes of intentionally paying attention can proceed easily and without interference. Such attention is called proper voluntary attention to distinguish it from the cases of habitual attention discussed earlier. The need for volitional attention arises in a situation of conflict between the chosen object or direction of activity and the objects or tendencies of involuntary attention. The feeling of tension is a characteristic of this type of attention process. Volitional attention can be defined as reluctant if the source of the conflict lies in the motivational sphere. The struggle with oneself is the essence of any processes of volitional attention.
2. The volitional character of expectant attention is especially manifested in situations of solving so-called vigilance tasks.
3. A particularly important option for the development of voluntary attention is the transformation of volitional attention into spontaneous. The function of involuntary attention is to create spontaneous attention. In case of failure, only fatigue and disgust appear. Spontaneous attention has the qualities of both voluntary and involuntary attention. With voluntary attention, it is related by activity, purposefulness, subordination to the intention to listen to the chosen object or type of activity. A common moment with involuntary attention is the lack of effort, automaticity and emotional accompaniment.
The main function of voluntary attention is the active regulation of the course of mental processes. At present, voluntary attention is understood as an activity aimed at controlling behavior, maintaining a stable electoral activity.
Characteristics of voluntary (deliberate) attention:
Purposefulness - is determined by the tasks that a person sets for himself in a particular activity:
The organized nature of activity - a person prepares to be attentive to one or another object, consciously directs his attention to it, organizes the mental processes necessary for this activity;
Sustainability - attention lasts more or less for a long time and depends on the tasks or work plan in which we express our intention.
Reasons for voluntary attention:
Interests of a person, prompting him to engage in this type of activity;
Awareness of the duty and obligation that requires the best possible performance of this type of activity.
POST-INDUSTRIAL ATTENTION
Post-voluntary attention- this is an active, purposeful concentration of consciousness, which does not require volitional efforts due to a high interest in activity. According to K.K. Platonov, post-voluntary attention is the highest form of voluntary attention. Work absorbs a person so much that interruptions in it begin to annoy him, as he has to be re-engaged in the process, to work in. Post-voluntary attention occurs in situations where the purpose of the activity is preserved, but there is no need for volitional effort.
PROPERTIES OF ATTENTION
Attention is characterized by various qualities or properties. Attention has a complex functional structure formed by the interrelationships of its main properties.
Attention properties are divided into primary and secondary. The primary ones include volume, stability, intensity, concentration, distribution of attention, while the secondary ones include fluctuations and switching of attention.
VOLUME
attention span- this is the number of objects (or their elements) perceived simultaneously with sufficient clarity and distinctness. The more objects or their elements are perceived at the same time, the greater the amount of attention and the more effective the activity will be.
To measure the volume of attention, special techniques and tests are used. With age, the scope of attention expands. The amount of attention of an adult is from four to seven objects at the same time. However, the amount of attention is an individual variable, and the classic indicator of the amount of attention in children is 3+-2.
For a child of preschool and primary school age, each letter is a separate object. The amount of attention of a child who is beginning to read is very small, but as he masters the technique of reading and gaining experience, the amount of attention necessary for fluent reading also increases. To increase the amount of attention, special exercises are needed. The main condition for expanding the scope of attention is the presence of skills and abilities of systematization, association by meaning, grouping of perceived material.
STABILITY
Sustainability of attention- its temporal characteristic is the duration of keeping attention to the same object or activity. Stability is maintained in practical activities with objects, in active mental activity. Sustained attention is maintained in work that produces positive results, especially after overcoming difficulties, which causes positive emotions, a sense of satisfaction.
An indicator of the stability of attention is the high productivity of activity for a relatively long time. Stability of attention is characterized by its duration and degree of concentration.
Experimental studies have shown that attention is subject to periodic voluntary fluctuations. The periods of such oscillations are usually two or three seconds and reach up to 12 seconds.
If attention is unstable, then the quality of work is sharply reduced. The following factors influence the stability of attention:
Complication of the object (complex objects cause complex active mental activity, which is the reason for the duration of concentration);
Personal activity;
Emotional state (under the influence of strong stimuli, distraction of attention to foreign objects may occur);
Attitude towards activity;
The pace of activity (for the stability of attention, it is important to ensure the optimal pace of work: at too low or too high a pace, nervous processes radiate (capture unnecessary parts of the cerebral cortex), it becomes difficult to concentrate and switch attention.
Stability is closely related to the dynamic characteristics of attention, such as its fluctuations (punctuation). The dynamics of attention is manifested in shifts in stability over a long period of work, which is divided into the following stages of concentration:
Initial entry into work;
Achievement of concentration of attention, then its microfluctuations, overcome by volitional efforts;
Decreased concentration and performance with increased fatigue.
INTENSITY
The intensity of attention is characterized by a relatively large expenditure of nervous energy in the performance of this type of activity. Attention in this or that activity can be manifested with different intensity. During any work, it manifests itself with different intensity. During any work, moments of very intense attention alternate with moments of weakened attention. So, in a state of fatigue, a person is not capable of intense attention, cannot concentrate, which is accompanied by an increase in inhibitory processes in the cerebral cortex and the appearance of drowsiness as a special act of protective inhibition. Physiologically, the intensity of attention is due to an increased degree of excitatory processes in certain areas of the cerebral cortex while inhibition of other areas.
CONCENTRATION
Concentration of attention is the degree of concentration. Concentrated attention is called, directed to any one object or type of activity and not spreading to others. Concentration (concentration) of attention on some objects implies simultaneous distraction from everything extraneous. Concentration is a necessary condition for comprehending and capturing information entering the brain, while the reflection becomes clearer and more distinct.
Concentrated attention is of high intensity, which is necessary for the performance of important activities. The physiological basis of concentrated attention is the optimal intensity of excitatory processes in those parts of the cerebral cortex that are associated with a given type of activity, while the development of strong inhibitory processes in other parts of the cortex.
Concentrated attention is characterized by pronounced external signs: in an appropriate posture, facial expressions, an expressive, lively look, a quick reaction, and in the inhibition of all unnecessary movements. At the same time, external signs do not always correspond to the actual state of attention. So, for example, silence in the classroom, in the audience may indicate both a passion for the subject, and complete indifference to what is happening.
DISTRIBUTION
Distribution of attention- this is the ability of a person to keep a certain number of objects in the center of attention at the same time, i.e. this is the simultaneous attention to two or more objects while simultaneously performing actions with them or observing them. Divided attention is a necessary condition for the successful completion of many activities that require the simultaneous performance of heterogeneous operations.
The distribution of attention is a property of attention, which is associated with the possibility of the simultaneous successful implementation (combination) of two or more different types of activities (or several actions). Considering the distribution of attention, it is necessary to take into account that:
The difficulty is the combination of two or more types of mental activity;
It is easier to combine motor and mental activity;
To successfully perform two types of activity simultaneously, one type of activity must be brought to automatism.
Of particular importance is the distribution of attention during study. The child must simultaneously listen to an adult and write down, get, open, memorize, manipulate objects, etc. But only if both types of activity or at least one are sufficiently mastered, do not require concentration, such a combination will be successful.
The older preschooler and the younger schoolchild do not distribute attention well, they do not yet have experience. Therefore, you should not force the child to do two things at the same time or, when doing one, distract him with another. But gradually it is necessary to accustom him to the distribution of attention, to put him in such conditions where it is necessary.
The ability for concentrated or, conversely, distributed attention is formed in the process of practical activity through exercises and the accumulation of appropriate skills.
SWITCHING
Switching attention- this is a conscious and meaningful movement of attention from one object to another or from one activity to another in connection with the formulation of a new task. In general, shifting attention means the ability to quickly navigate in difficult situation. Switching attention is always accompanied by some nervous tension, which is expressed in an effort of will. Switching attention is manifested in the deliberate transition of the subject from one type of activity to another, from one object to another, from one action to another.
Possible reasons for switching attention: the requirements of the activity being performed, inclusion in a new activity, fatigue.
Switching can be complete (completed) and incomplete (incomplete) - in the case when a person has switched to another activity, but has not yet been completely distracted from the first. The ease and success of switching attention depends on:
From the relationship between antecedent and subsequent activity;
From the completion of the previous activity, or its incompleteness;
From the attitude of the subject to a particular activity (the more interesting, the easier it is to switch, and vice versa);
From the individual characteristics of the subject (type of the nervous system, individual experience, etc.);
From the significance of the goal of activity for a person, its clarity, clarity.
Along with the switching of attention, its distraction stands out - an involuntary shift of attention from the main activity to objects that are not important for its successful implementation. It is difficult for a child to start a new job, especially if it does not cause positive emotions, therefore it is not recommended to change its content and types often without special need. However, with fatigue and monotonous activity, such a switch is useful and necessary.
Switching attention is one of the trained qualities.
VASCULATION
fluctuations in attention are expressed in the periodic change of objects to which it refers. Fluctuations in attention are different from changes in its stability. The change in stability is characterized by a periodic increase and decrease in the intensity of attention. There can be fluctuations even with the most concentrated and steady attention. Periodic fluctuations in attention are clearly manifested in experiments with a dual image.
A classic example is a double square, which represents two figures at the same time: 1) a truncated pyramid facing the viewer with its top; and 2) a long corridor with an exit at the end. If you look at this drawing, even with intense attention, then at certain intervals we will have either a truncated pyramid or a long corridor in front of us. Such a change of objects is an example of fluctuating attention.
Fluctuation of Attention is explained by the fact that the activity of certain nerve centers cannot continue intensively without interruption. During hard work, the corresponding nerve cells are quickly depleted and need to be restored. Their protective inhibition sets in, as a result of which in those centers that were previously inhibited, the attention is increased and attention is switched to extraneous stimuli.
Attention has selective character. Thanks to this, the activity has a certain direction. Outwardly, attention is expressed in movements, with the help of which we adapt to the performance of actions. At the same time, unnecessary movements that interfere with this activity are slowed down. So, for example, if it is necessary to carefully examine an object, we listen carefully to something, then we tilt our head in order to hear better. This adaptive movement facilitates perception.
Orientation, or selectivity, of attention manifests itself in various forms. Initially, the choice of objects of attention is associated with the analysis of a huge flow of information continuously coming from the outside world. This is tentative - research activity proceeds to a large extent at the level of the subconscious. Selectivity proceeds to a large extent at the subconscious level. The selectivity of attention is manifested in vigilance, alertness, in anxious expectation (involuntary selectivity). The conscious selection of some objects occurs in purposeful cognitive activity. In some cases, the selectivity of attention may be in the nature of a search, choice, control associated with a specific program (arbitrary selectivity). In other cases (for example, reading a book, listening to music, etc.), a clear program is not necessary.
DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION IN PRESCHOOL AGE
Attention is understood as the direction and concentration of mental activity on a certain object while being distracted from others.. Thus, this mental process is a condition for the successful implementation of any activity, both external and internal, and its qualitative performance is its product. In its elementary form, attention acts as an orienting reflex "what is it?", performing a biological protective function. So, a person selects a stimulus and determines its positive or negative value.
Attention also has internal manifestations.. The first include a tense posture, a focused look, the second - changes in the body, for example, increased heart rate, breathing, release of adrenaline in the blood, etc.
traditional views attention is divided by the presence of the goal of being attentive and the use of volitional efforts to maintain it. This classification includes involuntary, voluntary and post-voluntary attention. The involuntary is caused by the characteristics of the stimulus, activity with the object, is associated with the interests, needs, inclinations of a person. Voluntary attention implies a consciously set goal of “being attentive” and the use of volitional efforts to maintain it, for example, a child resists distractions while continuing to prepare homework. Post-voluntary attention is observed when the goal of the activity moves from the result to the process of implementation, and the need for volitional efforts to maintain attention disappears.
The level of development of attention is indicated by the formation of its properties: concentration, stability, distribution and switching. Concentration is determined by how deep a person is in the work. An indicator of stability is the time of concentration on the object and the number of distractions from it. Switching is manifested in the transition from one object or activity to another. Distribution occurs when a person performs several actions at the same time, for example, reciting a poem while moving around the room.
FUNCTIONS AND TYPES OF ATTENTION
Attention in human life and activity performs many different functions. It activates the necessary and inhibits currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes, promotes an organized and purposeful selection of information entering the body in accordance with its actual needs, provides selective and long-term focus on one object or type of activity.
Directivity and selectivity of cognition processes are connected with attention. Attention is determined by the accuracy and detail of perception, the strength and selectivity of memory, the focus and productivity of mental activity.
Consider the main types of attention. These are natural and social conditioned attention, direct attention, involuntary and voluntary attention, sensory and intellectual attention.
natural attention given to a person from his very birth in the form of an innate ability to selectively respond to certain external or internal stimuli that carry elements of informational novelty.
social conditioned attention develops in a lifetime as a result of training and education.
Directly venous attention not managing anything, except for the object to which it is directed and which corresponds to the actual interests and needs of a person.
mediated attention regulated by special means, such as gestures, words, etc.
involuntary attention not connected with the participation of the will, but arbitrary necessarily includes volitional regulation. Involuntary attention does not require effort to hold and focus attention on something for a certain time, and voluntary has all these qualities.
Finally, one can distinguish sensuous and intellectual Attention . The first is mainly associated with emotions and selective sense organs, and the second - with concentration and direction of thought.
DEVELOPMENT OF ATTENTION IN CHILDHOOD
The development of attention in the older preschool age is associated with the emergence of new interests, broadening one's horizons, mastering new activities. The older preschooler is increasingly paying attention to those aspects of reality that previously remained outside his attention.
The development of attention in ontogeny was analyzed by L.S. Vygotsky. He wrote that "the culture of developing attention consists in the fact that, with the help of an adult, the child learns a number of artificial stimuli - signs through which he further directs his own behavior and attention."
The process of age-related development of attention, according to A.N. Leontiev, is the improvement of attention with age under the influence of external stimuli. Such stimuli are surrounding objects, speech of adults, individual words. From the first days of a child's life, attention is largely directed with the help of stimulus words.
The development of attention in childhood goes through a series of successive stages:
1) the first weeks and months of a child's life are characterized by the appearance of an orienting reflex as an objective congenital sign of involuntary attention, concentration is low;
2) by the end of the first year of life, tentatively research activity arises as a means of the future development of voluntary attention;
3) the beginning of the second year of life is characterized by the appearance of the beginnings of voluntary attention: under the influence of an adult, the child directs his gaze to the named object;
4) in the second and third years of life, the initial form of voluntary attention develops. The distribution of attention between two objects or actions is practically inaccessible to children under the age of three;
5) at the age of 4.5-5 years, the ability to direct attention under the influence of a complex instruction from an adult appears;
6) at the age of 5-6, an elementary form of voluntary attention arises under the influence of self-instruction. Attention is most stable in vigorous activity, in games, manipulation of objects, when performing various activities;
7) at the age of 7, attention develops and improves, including volitional attention;
8) in senior preschool age, the following changes occur:
The scope of attention is expanding;
The stability of attention increases;
Arbitrary attention is formed.
The amount of attention depends to a large extent on the child's past experiences and development. An older preschooler is able to keep a small number of objects or phenomena in his field of vision.
The data of N.L. Agenosova. Offering to the attention of preschool children a picture that was simple in content, she recorded the time of looking at it. In this case, the time interval between the moment when the child's gaze first turned to the picture and the moment when the child was distracted from it was specially measured. The average time spent by children of different ages on the free examination of the picture shows that the stability of attention - concentrated examination - increases from the younger to the older preschool age by almost 2 times (from 6.8 to 12.3 seconds).
Research conducted by T.V. Petukhova, show that older preschoolers not only can do uninteresting work (on the instructions of an adult) for a longer time, but are much less likely to be distracted by extraneous objects than younger preschoolers. Comparative data by age are presented in the table.
During preschool age, the attention of the child becomes not only more stable, wider in volume, but also more effective. This is especially evident in the formation of a voluntary action in a child.
So, N.N. Poddkov, who studied the features of action automation in preschool children, obtained data indicating an increase in the efficiency of attention in the formation of an action. He offered the child to turn off multi-colored light bulbs that were lit on the remote control in a certain sequence, and recorded the number of orienting reactions to signals (light bulbs) and objects of action (buttons). Unlike younger preschoolers aged 3.5-4 years, who could not determine the location of light bulbs in space and the sequence of their ignition for a long time, preschoolers aged 5-6.5 years found them with one or two head movements. By the end of preschool age, the experience of managing one's attention gradually appears, the ability to organize it more or less independently, consciously direct it to certain objects, phenomena, and hold on to them.
During preschool age, due to the complication of children's activities and their general mental development of children's activities and their general mental development, attention becomes more focused and stable. So, if younger preschoolers can play the same game for 25-30 minutes, then at 5-6 years the duration of the game increases to 1-1.5 hours. This is due to the fact that the game is gradually becoming more complex and interest in it is supported by the constant introduction of new situations.
Voluntary attention is closely related to speech. At preschool age, voluntary attention is formed in connection with the general increase in the role of speech in regulating the child's behavior. The better speech is developed in a preschool child, the higher the level of development of perception and the earlier voluntary attention is formed.
Attention in preschool childhood is predominantly involuntary. A number of domestic psychologists (D.B. Elkonin, L.S. Vygotsky, A.V. Zaporozhets, N.F. Dobrynin and others) associate the predominance of involuntary attention with age-related psychological characteristics of preschool children. Involuntary attention develops throughout preschool childhood. N.F. Dobrynin, A.M. Bardian and N.V. Lavrova note that the further development of involuntary attention is associated with the enrichment of interests. As the interests of the child expand, his attention is riveted to a wider range of objects and phenomena.
Research by psychologists shows that the development of voluntary attention in the case of competent management of this process during the first year can occur quite intensively. Of great importance is the development in children of the ability to work purposefully. Initially, the adult sets the goal for the child, assisting in achieving it. The development of voluntary attention in children goes in the direction from the fulfillment of the goals set by adults to the goals that the child himself sets and controls their achievement.
The physiological basis of involuntary attention is the orienting reflex. This form of attention predominates in preschoolers and occurs in junior schoolchildren at the beginning of training. The reaction to everything new and bright is quite strong at this age. The child on everything new and bright is strong enough at this age. The child is not yet able to control his attention and often finds himself at the mercy of external impressions. The attention of an older preschooler is closely related to thinking. Children cannot focus their attention on the obscure, incomprehensible, they are quickly distracted and begin to do other things. It is necessary not only to make the difficult, incomprehensible accessible and understandable, but also to develop volitional efforts, and with it voluntary attention.
Even with the concentration of attention, children are not able to notice the main, essential. This is due to the peculiarities of their thinking: the visual-figurative nature of mental activity leads to the fact that children direct all their attention to individual objects or their signs. The images and ideas that arise in the minds of children cause an emotional experience that exerts inhibitory attention on mental activity. And if the essence of the subject is not on the surface, if it is disguised, then younger students do not notice it. With the development and improvement of mental activity, children increasingly become able to focus their attention on the main, basic, essential.
It is not enough for a child to understand that he must be attentive, it is necessary to teach him this. The main mechanisms of voluntary attention are laid in preschool childhood. The development of voluntary attention during preschool childhood involves the formation of three instructions:
1) adoption of progressively more complex instructions;
2) keeping instructions in attention throughout the lesson;
3) development of self-control skills;
One of the tasks of developing attention is the formation of a control function, i.e. the ability to control their actions and deeds, to check the results of their activities. Many psychologists see this as the main content of attention: the formation of the mental action of control can be ensured with independent work children with programmed educational material. The organization of materials in a correctional and developmental lesson allows you to:
1) plan control actions;
2) act in accordance with the plan;
3) constantly carry out the operation of comparison with the existing image.
Such a construction of work makes it possible to individualize the activity of each child according to his optimal pace and degree of activity.
The origins of voluntary attention lie outside the personality of the child. This means that the development of involuntary attention in itself does not guarantee the emergence of voluntary attention. The latter is formed due to the fact that adults include the child in new activities and, with the help of certain means, direct and organize his attention. By guiding the child's attention, the adult thus gives him the means by which he subsequently begins to control his own attention.
The universal means of organizing attention is speech. Initially, adults organize the attention of the child with the help of verbal instructions. In the future, the child himself begins to designate with words those objects and phenomena that need to be paid attention to in order to achieve a result. As the planning functions of speech develop, the child becomes able to organize his attention in advance on the upcoming activity, to formulate verbal instructions for performing the action.
During preschool age, the use of speech to organize one's own attention increases dramatically. This is manifested in the fact that, when performing tasks according to the instructions of an adult, children of older preschool age pronounce instructions aloud 10-12 times more often than younger preschoolers.
Thus, voluntary attention is formed at preschool age in connection with the age-related development of speech and its role in regulating the child's behavior.
Although preschoolers begin to master voluntary attention, involuntary attention remains predominant throughout the entire preschool age. It is difficult for children to concentrate on monotonous and unattractive activities for them, while in the process of playing or solving an emotionally charged productive task, they can remain involved in this activity for a long time and, accordingly, be attentive.
This feature is one of the grounds on which correctional and developmental work can be based on classes that require constant tension of voluntary attention. The elements of the game used in the classroom, productive activities, frequent changes in the forms of activity allow maintaining the attention of children at a fairly high level.
To maintain sustained voluntary attention, following conditions:
A clear understanding by the child of the specific task of the activity performed;
habitual conditions work. If the child performs an activity in permanent place, at a certain time, if his objects and work accessories are kept in order, and the work process itself is strictly structured, then this creates an attitude and conditions for the development and concentration of voluntary attention;
The emergence of indirect interests. The activity itself may not arouse interest in the child, but he has a steady interest in the result of the activity;
Creation of favorable conditions for activities, i.e. exclusion of negatively acting extraneous stimuli (noise, loud music, harsh sounds, smells, etc.). Light, soft sounding music, weak sounds not only do not disturb attention, but even enhance it;
Voluntary attention training (through repetition and exercise) in order to develop observation skills in children. The development of voluntary attention is influenced by the formation of speech and the ability to follow instructions from adults. Under the influence of the game, the child's attention reaches a sufficiently high degree of development. The educational game is of great importance for the development of focused attention in preschool and primary school age, since it always has a task, rules, actions and requires concentration. In order to develop certain qualities of attention in children in a timely manner (purposefulness, stability, concentration) and the ability to manage them, specially organized games and exercises are needed. In some games, it is necessary to take into account the different requirements of the task, in others - to be able to single out and remember the purpose of the action, in the third - to switch attention in time, in the fourth - concentration and stability of attention, and since it is necessary to notice and realize the changes that have occurred.
Children with inattention are characterized by a lack of prior readiness for active work in class. They are constantly distracted from the main activity. Facial expressions and posture very clearly testify to their inattention. The main indicator of inattention is low productivity and a large number of errors in the work performed.
The reasons for low concentration in senior preschool age are: insufficient intellectual activity; lack of formation of skills and abilities of educational activity; unformed will.
When organizing correctional and developmental work, it is necessary to take into account the peculiarities of all types of attention. Attention factors include:
The structure of the organization of activities (the association of perceived objects contributes to their easier perception);
Organization of the lesson (clear start and end; availability of necessary conditions for work, etc.);
The pace of the lesson (at an excessively fast pace, errors may appear, at a slow pace, work does not capture the child);
Consistency and systematic requirements of an adult;
A change in activities (auditory concentration is replaced by visual and motor) is a necessary condition, since constant support of attention with the help of volitional efforts is associated with great stress and is very tiring;
Accounting for the age and individual characteristics of the attention of the child.
Under the influence of various activities, the attention of an older preschooler reaches a sufficiently high degree of development, which provides him with the opportunity to study at school.
The distribution of attention among younger students is not sufficiently developed. If the child finds the answer to the question asked, he is no longer able to monitor his behavior: he jumps up from his seat, forgetting that this should not be done during school hours. It is difficult for a child to sit still while writing, drawing, sculpting, because at the same time one must be attentive to the process of writing words, drawing a picture, to the content of the work, to how the pencil and paper are located, as well as to one's posture. Therefore, an adult needs to spend a lot of time and effort to form the correct posture in children when writing and reading.
ATTENTION OF CHILDREN DURING CLASSES
Attention is an important aspect of cognitive activity. The kindergarten teacher needs to know the features of its formation. “Attention,” wrote K.D. Ushinsky, - there is that door that not a single word of teaching can pass, otherwise it will not enter the soul of the child.
Involuntary attention is usually associated with the sudden appearance of an object, a change in its movements, a demonstration of a bright, contrasting object. Auditory, involuntary attention occurs with suddenly heard sounds, it is supported expressive speech educator: a change in intonation of the strength of the voice.
Voluntary attention is characterized by purposefulness.
However, in the process of learning, everything cannot be made so interesting that the assimilation of knowledge does not require an effort of will. Voluntary attention differs from involuntary attention in that it requires considerable effort from the child. However, these efforts of the will may decrease or even disappear altogether. This is observed in those cases when in the process of classes there is an interest in the work itself. Voluntary attention turns into post-voluntary. The presence of post-voluntary attention indicates that the activity has captured the child and significant volitional efforts are no longer required to maintain it. It's high quality the new kind attention. It differs from the involuntary in that it presupposes conscious assimilation.
The value of post-voluntary attention is important for the pedagogical process, since maintaining attention for a long time with the help of volitional efforts is tiring.
The features of attention include concentration (or concentration) and stability.
Guided by this, we traced the conditions for maintaining the stability of attention in older preschoolers during classes.
Educators know that getting a child's attention is not difficult. But keeping it is not easy. To do this, you need to use special techniques.
The formation of attention has always been an important part of the learning process. “However,” writes A.P. Usov, - the education of attention unlawfully began to stand out as an independent task, to be solved in isolation from the assimilation of knowledge and skills. The attention of children acquires certain qualities depending on the activity in which it is manifested and formed, depending on how this activity is directed.
The organizational moment of the lesson is very important. If it passes calmly and quickly, everything necessary is prepared in advance and the educator has time to pay special attention to those whose transition from play to the “working state” is slow, then, as a rule, there is a rapid concentration of children. However, this is not always the case. Sometimes the organizational moment is delayed up to four or more minutes.
According to our observations, the duration of the organizational moment should not exceed a minute.
The inclusion of children in the work contributes primarily to the way of revealing the purpose of the lesson, its content. It is important that what is reported in the lesson arouses a keen interest and curiosity in children, draws their attention to the words of the teacher. The teacher began one of the design classes as follows: “Children, soon New Year. We will decorate Christmas trees in groups, for this we need to make toys. Kids do not know how to make beautiful toys, so we will agree that we will select the best ones for kids.”
Sometimes it is expedient and direct to point out the difficulties in the work. We can say that the upcoming lesson on gluing books is difficult, only children can do it. preparatory group they need to be vigilant and careful.
The mood for the lesson is also created with the help of riddles, a proposal to remember proverbs and sayings. This activates the thinking of children, develops their speech, ingenuity.
The attention of children must be maintained during the subsequent stages of the lesson. Explanation, according to A.P. Mustache, should not drag on for more than 5 minutes, otherwise there will be a weakening of attention. At the lesson on decorative drawing, observed by us, the teacher spent 8 minutes explaining. As a result, 10 children were distracted, unable to immediately start work, as a long wait for the start of activities led to a weakening of attention.
What methodological techniques used by the educator help maintain active attention?
The explanation of the task should be laconic, aiming the children at the main thing. Children do it on their own or with the help of a teacher. In this case, you can use the method of step-by-step instructions developed by A.P. Usova. In one of the kindergartens, we observed drawing classes using this method. At the first lesson, the teacher explained and showed how to draw a human figure. On the second, she invited the child to draw a figure of a skier on the board. The third lesson was on the topic "Skiers in the forest", where the children did the work on their own. The step-by-step explanation served as a support to maintain attention during the task.
Educators often use a show, an explanation, a sample. In these classes, the children seem to be listening intently. But when the teacher asks to repeat, not everyone can answer.
During the explanation and during the lesson, a certain emotional discharge, a change of techniques is necessary. The teacher gives interesting examples using illustrations, asks questions in a somewhat unusual way, reminds individual children that he will ask them.
The combination of the teacher's word with the use of visualization is widely used in teaching practice. The forms of this combination are different: use a sample or instead of it a picture, a drawing, and not only at the beginning of the explanation, but also in the middle, at the end.
But then the kids got to work. How to keep their attention at this stage of the lesson?
Let us analyze the characteristics of children's behavior depending on the type of activity and the duration of the task. The analysis showed that children behave well in their native language classes for 15-20 minutes. At this time, the number of distractions is small (2-3). Further increases (9-10).
In drawing classes, attention is maintained for 25 minutes, while designing - up to 20 minutes. In the future, the number of distracted children increases to 6-7 people.
What methodological techniques are used by the teacher at this stage of the lesson?
It is especially important to guide the activities of children in the process of learning their native language. Skillfully posing questions, emphasizing what to pay attention to, how you can say differently, what is interesting in the answer of a friend, the educator thereby activates the children. The inability of the teacher to organize the work of all children will necessarily lead to a weakening of their attention.
To create sustainable attention and maintain it, educators complicate tasks by setting a mental task for the children at each lesson.
With the monotonous conduct of the lesson, it is difficult to maintain attention. So, for example, the teacher told the fairy tale "Sivka-burka" for 20 minutes. Already at the 5th minute of reading the fairy tale, the children began to get distracted. K.D. Ushinsky said that any too long monotonous activity has a detrimental effect on the child.
Equally important is the nature of the questions asked by the teacher. To questions that are incomprehensible to children or are too general, such as: “What was the old woman like? What is winter like? etc." The child cannot answer correctly. He has to guess what the teacher wants to ask. The child's dissatisfaction with his answers can weaken attention.
By the end of the session, fatigue increases.
For some, this affects in increased excitability, for others, lethargy, passive expectation of the end of the lesson is noticed. In both cases, the attention of children is reduced.
At the end of the lesson, the educator usually sums up the activity, therefore it is advisable to use different forms of selection and evaluation of work, answers: analysis of the work by the educator, selection and evaluation the best works, a game form of analysis, 3-4 minutes is enough for this.
ATTENTION DISORDERS
There are so-called negative aspects of the process of Attention or disturbance of attention - distractibility, absent-mindedness, excessive mobility and inertia.
Attention disorders are understood as pathological changes in the direction, selectivity of mental activity, expressed in a state of fatigue or with organic brain damage, in the narrowing of the object of attention, when a person can perceive only a small number of objects at the same time, in instability of attention, when the concentration of attention is disturbed and its distractibility to side irritants.
The causes of violations can be external and internal. External causes can be considered various negative influences (stressors, frustrators) and negative relationships of the child with other people. The actions of internal causes can be represented as the influence of a disturbed part of the psyche on a healthy one.
Attention disorders include:
Inability to maintain attention: the child cannot complete the task to the end, is not collected when it is completed;
Decreased selective attention, inability to focus on a subject;
Increased distractibility: when performing tasks, children fuss, often switch from one activity to another;
Decreased attention in unusual situations when it is necessary to act independently.
Types of attention disorders: distractibility, absent-mindedness, hypermobility, inertia, narrowing of the scope of attention, instability of attention (in violation of concentration).
DISTRACTABILITY
Distractibility(distraction) - involuntary shifting of attention from one object to another. It arises under the action of extraneous stimuli on a person engaged in some kind of activity at that moment.
Distractibility can be external and internal. External distractibility occurs under the influence of stimuli, while voluntary attention becomes involuntary. Internal distractibility arises under the influence of experiences, extraneous emotions, due to lack of interest and hyper-responsibility. Internal distractibility is explained by the extreme inhibition that develops under the influence of boring monotonous work.
Possible causes of distraction in a child:
Insufficient formation of volitional qualities;
The habit of being inattentive (habitual inattention is associated with a lack of serious interests, a superficial attitude to objects and phenomena);
Increased fatigue;
Bad feeling;
The presence of psychotrauma;
Monotonous, uninteresting activity;
Inappropriate type of activity;
The presence of intense extraneous stimuli;
In order to organize the child's attention, it is necessary to involve him in action, to arouse intellectual interest in the content and results of the activity.
DISSOLUTION
Distracted attention is the inability to focus on anything in particular for a long time. The term "absent-mindedness" means superficial, "sliding" attention. Distraction may appear:
a) inability to concentrate;
b) in excessive concentration on one object of activity;
Absent-mindedness is of two types: imaginary and genuine. Imaginary absent-mindedness is a person’s inattention to surrounding objects and phenomena, caused by focusing on one object (phenomenon) or experience. “With concentrated thinking,” writes I.P. Pavlov, - and being carried away by some business, we do not see or hear what is happening around us - clearly a negative induction.
The mechanism of absent-mindedness is the presence of a powerful dominant - the center of imagination in the cerebral cortex, which suppresses all other signals coming from outside. Distinguish between scientific absent-mindedness and senile absent-mindedness.
The so-called scientific absent-mindedness is a manifestation of a very high concentration of attention, combined with its limited volume. In a state of professorial absent-mindedness, the train of thought is logically ordered and strictly directed towards achieving an ideal and distant goal or searching for a solution. challenging task. Examples of "professorial" distraction are usually found in the biographies of great philosophers, inventors and scientists.
Attention disorders, called senile absent-mindedness, include its weak switchability, combined with insufficient concentration. A person's attention seems to "stick" on one subject, activity or reflection, but at the same time, unlike "professorial" absent-mindedness, such concentration is ineffective.
A similar phenomenon of absent-mindedness is observed in states of depression and anxiety, when a person's thinking is long and continuously occupied with repetitive and fruitless thoughts and images.
Absent-mindedness is also often called a slight exhaustion of attention, as a result of illness, overwork. In sickly and weakened children, a similar variant of absent-mindedness is not uncommon. Such children can work well at the beginning of a lesson or school day, but they soon get tired and attention weakens. To date, there is a tendency to increase the number of children with various deviations in the state of health and chronic diseases, and, as a result, impaired attention.
Superficial and unstable attention is found in preschoolers - dreamers and dreamers. Such children are often turned off from the lesson, carried away into an illusory world. V.P. Kashchenko points to another reason for absent-mindedness - the experience of fears, which makes it difficult to concentrate on the desired task. Nervous, hyperactive and sickly children are distracted 1.5-2 times more often than calm and healthy ones.
In each case, you have to understand the causes of violations and the severity of an individual plan for correcting absent-mindedness, taking them into account.
There are many reasons for truly distracted attention. The most common are the following:
General weakening of the nervous system (neurasthenia)
Deterioration of health;
Physical and mental overwork;
The presence of severe experiences, traumas;
Emotional overload due to a large number of impressions (positive and negative);
Disadvantages of upbringing (for example, in conditions of hyper-care, a child who receives too many verbal instructions, a large amount of information gets used to a constant change of impressions, and his attention becomes superficial, observation and concentration of attention are not formed);
Violations of the regime of work and rest;
Respiratory disorders (cause of impaired correct breathing there may be adenoids, chronic tonsillitis, etc. a child who breathes through his mouth, breathes shallowly, superficially, his brain is not enriched with oxygen, which negatively affects his working capacity, low working capacity interferes with his concentration on objects and causes absent-mindedness)
Excessive mobility;
Excessive mobility of attention is a constant transition from one object to another, from one activity to another with low efficiency.
inertness
Inertia of attention - low mobility of attention, its pathological fixation on a limited circle of ideas and thoughts.
In childhood, inattention is very often noted. Inattention requires correction if the following signs appear in a child for six months or more:
Inability to focus on details, mistakes due to inattention;
Inability to hold attention and listen to speech addressed to him;
Frequent distractibility to extraneous stimuli;
Helplessness in bringing the task to the end;
Negative attitude to tasks that require tension, forgetfulness (the child is not able to keep in memory the instructions for the task during its execution)
Loss of items needed to complete the task.
PRINCIPLES OF CORRECTIONAL DEVELOPMENT WORK AND COMPILATION OF CORRECTIONAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMS
The principles of building correctional programs determine the strategy, tactics of their development, i.e. determine the goals, objectives of correction, methods and means of psychological impact.
When compiling various kinds of correctional programs, it is necessary to rely on the principle:
Consistency of corrective, preventive and developmental tasks;
Unity of diagnostics and correction;
Priority correction of the causal type;
Activity principle of correction;
Accounting for the age-psychological and individual characteristics of the child;
Complexity of methods of psychological influence;
Active involvement of the social environment to participate in the correctional program;
Reliance on different levels of organization of mental processes;
Programmed learning;
Increasing complexity;
Accounting for the volume and degree of diversity of the material;
Accounting for the emotional coloring of the material;
The principle of consistency of corrective, preventive and developmental tasks reflects the relationship between the development of various aspects of the child's personality and the heterochrony (unevenness) of their development.
In other words, each quality of the child is at different levels of development in relation to its different aspects - at the level of well-being, which corresponds to the norm of development, at the level of risk, which means the threat of potential developmental difficulties; and at the level of actual difficulties of development, which is objectively expressed in various kinds of deviations from the normative course of development.
This fact reveals the law of uneven development. Therefore, the lag and deviation in the development of certain aspects of the personality naturally lead to difficulties and deviations in the development of the child's intellect and vice versa. For example, the underdevelopment of educational and cognitive motives and needs with a high probability leads to a lag in the development of logical operational intelligence.
When determining the goals and objectives of correctional and developmental work, one should not be limited only to actual problems and momentary difficulties in the development of the child, but one must proceed from the nearest developmental forecast.
Timely taken preventive measures make it possible to prevent various kinds of deviations in development. On the other hand, the interdependence in the development of various aspects of the child's psyche makes it possible to optimize development to a large extent due to the intensification strengths through a compensation mechanism. In addition, any program of psychological impact on a child should be aimed not only at correcting deviations in development, preventing them, but also at creating favorable conditions for the fullest realization of the potential for the harmonious development of the individual.
Thus, the goals and objectives of any correctional and developmental work should be formulated as a system of tasks of three levels:
1) correctional - correction of deviations and developmental disorders, resolution of developmental difficulties, resolution of developmental difficulties;
2) developing - optimization, stimulation, enrichment of the content of development;
Only the unity of the listed types of tasks can ensure the success and effectiveness of correctional and developmental work.
The principle of unity of diagnostics and correction reflects the integrity of the process of providing psychological assistance.
The principle is implemented in two aspects:
1) The beginning of the implementation of corrective work must necessarily be preceded by the stage of a comprehensive diagnostic examination, which allows to identify the nature and intensity of developmental difficulties, draw a conclusion about their possible causes and, based on this conclusion, formulate the goals and objectives of the correctional development program.
An effective correctional program can only be built on the basis of a thorough psychological examination. At the same time, the most accurate diagnostic data are meaningless if they are not accompanied by a well-thought-out system of psychological and pedagogical corrective measures.
2) The implementation of the correctional-developing program requires the psychologist to constantly monitor the dynamics of changes in the personality, behavior and activities, emotional states, feelings and experiences of the child. Such control allows you to make the necessary adjustments to the tasks of the program, methods and means of psychological influence on the child, .. In other words, each step in the correction should be evaluated from the point of view of its impact, taking into account the final goals of the program.
Thus, the control of the dynamics and effectiveness of the correction, in turn, requires constant diagnostics throughout the correctional work.
The principle of priority correction of the causal type .
He distinguishes two types of correction depending on its direction: symptomatic and causal (causal).
Symptomatic correction is aimed at overcoming the external side of developmental difficulties, external signs, symptoms of these difficulties.
On the contrary, the correction of the causal (causal) type involves the elimination and non-violation of the causes, the causes that give rise to problems and deviations. Obviously, only the elimination of these causes can provide the most complete resolution of problems.
Working with symptoms, no matter how successful it may be, will not be able to completely resolve the difficulties experienced by the child. An indicator in this regard, for example, with the correction of fears in children. The use of the method of drawing therapy has a significant effect in overcoming the symptoms of fears. However, in those cases where the causes of children's fears lie in intra-family relations and are associated, for example, with the emotional rejection of the child by parents and deep effective experiences, the isolated use of the method of drawing therapy gives only an unstable short-term effect.
Having rid the child of fears of the dark and unwillingness to be alone in the room, after a while you can get the same child as a client, but with a new fear, for example heights. Only successful psycho-correctional work with the causes of fear and phobias (in this case, work on optimizing child-parent relationships) made it possible to avoid reproducing the symptoms of dysfunctional development.
The principle of priority correction of the causal type means that the priority goal of corrective measures should be to eliminate the causes of difficulties and deviations in the development of the child.
The activity principle of correction:
The theoretical basis is the position on the role of activity in the mental development of the child, developed in the works of A.N. Leontiev, D.B. Elkonin. The activity principle of correction determines the tactics of corrective work through the organization of the child's vigorous activity, during which the necessary basis for positive changes in the development of his personality is created. Corrective action is always carried out in the context of a particular activity of the child.
The principle of taking into account age - psychological individual characteristics agrees on the requirements for the conformity of the mental and personal development of the child with the age norm and the recognition of the fact of the uniqueness and uniqueness of a particular person. Normativity of development should be understood as a sequence of successive ages, stages of ontogenetic development.
Taking into account the individual characteristics of the personality makes it possible to outline an optimization program for each individual child within the age norm.
The correctional program cannot be eliminated, depersonalized or unified. On the contrary, it should create optimal opportunities for individualization and assertion of the self.
The principle of the complexity of methods of psychological influence affirms the need to use the whole variety of methods, techniques and techniques from the arsenal of practical psychology.
The principle of actively involving the closest social environment to participate in the correctional program is determined by the most important role played by the closest social circle in the mental development of the child.
The system of the child's relationship with close adults, the features of their interpersonal relationships and communication, forms joint activities, the methods of its implementation constitute the main component of the social situation of development, determine the zone of proximal development. The child develops in an integral system of social relations, inseparably and in unity with him. That is, the object of development is not an isolated child, but an integral system of social relations.
The principle of reliance on different levels of organization of mental processes determines the need to rely on more developed mental processes and the use of activating methods for correcting intellectual and perceptual development. In childhood, the development of voluntary processes is not enough, at the same time, involuntary processes can become the basis for the formation of arbitrariness in its various forms.
The principle of programmed learning provides for the development by the child of programs consisting of a series of sequential operations, the implementation of which - first with a psychologist, and then independently leads to the formation of the necessary skills and actions in him.
The principle of increasing complexity is that each task must go through a series of stages from simple to complex. The formal difficulty of the material does not always coincide with its psychological complexity. The level of difficulty should be available to a particular child. This will maintain interest in remedial work and provide an opportunity to experience the joy of overcoming.
Accounting for the volume and degree of diversity of the material. During the implementation of the correctional program, it is necessary to move on to new material only after the relative formation of one or another skill. It is necessary to diversify the material and increase its volume strictly gradually.
Accounting for the emotional complexity of the material. This principle requires that the conducted games, exercises, exercises, presented material create a favorable emotional background, stimulate positive emotions. A remedial session must necessarily end on a positive emotional background.
The program of correctional work must be psychologically justified. The success of corrective work depends primarily on the correct, objective, comprehensive assessment of the results of a diagnostic examination. Correctional work should be aimed at the qualitative transformation of various functions, as well as at the development of various abilities of the child.
To implement corrective actions, it is necessary to create an implementation of certain correction models: general, typical, individual.
FEATURES OF DIAGNOSIS
ATTENTION IN CHILDHOOD
Psychodiagnostics of the properties of the attention of children aged 6-7 should be aimed both at a detailed study of the development of natural or involuntary cognitive processes, and at the timely detection and accurate description of arbitrary cognitive actions and reactions.
One of the important conditions for obtaining reliable results is the establishment of emotional contact and mutual understanding between the psychologist and the child. To establish such contact, it is necessary to conduct an examination in a familiar environment for the child. It is necessary to create conditions under which the child will not experience negative emotions (fear, insecurity) from communicating with a stranger (unfamiliar) person. Work with the child should begin with the game, gradually including him in the tasks required by the methodology. Lack of interest and motivation for the task can bring all the efforts of the psychologist to naught.
In case of rapid fatigue, it is necessary to interrupt classes and allow the child to walk or do physical exercises.
It is necessary to take into account the time required for the study. In general, the examination of a preschool child takes from 30 to 60 minutes.
A suitable environment should be created for the examination (bright, unusual objects that can distract the child's attention from the proposed tasks are undesirable).
The examination must be carried out at a table, the size of which corresponds to the growth of the child. The preschooler is not seated facing the window so that what is happening on the street does not distract him.
No one should interfere with the work of a psychologist with a child.
During the examination, the psychologist keeps a record and records:
Proposed tasks and the level of their implementation;
Assistance provided to the child and the degree of his learning;
The nature of contact with adults;
Attitude towards completing tasks;
The level of activity when performing tasks;
DIAGNOSIS METHODS FOR ATTENTION
Target: diagnostics of productivity and stability of attention in children aged 5-7 years.
Description: the child works according to the instructions with a drawing that randomly depicts simple shapes. He was given the task to search and cross out two unequal figures in different ways, for example: cross out an asterisk with a vertical line, and a circle with a horizontal one. The child works for 2.5 minutes, during which five times in a row (every 30 minutes) he is told “start” and “stop”. The experimenter marks in the child's drawing the place where the corresponding commands are given.
Equipment:“a drawing depicting simple figures (sheet 1), a clock with a second hand, a protocol for fixing attention parameters, simple pencils.
Instruction:“Now you and I will play such a game: I will show you a picture on which many different objects familiar to you are drawn. When I say “begin,” you will begin to search for and cross out the figures I have named along the lines of this drawing. This will need to be done until I say "stop". At this time, you will have to stop and show me the image of the object that you saw last.
I will mark on your drawing the place where you left off, and I will say “start” again. After that, you will continue to search for and cross out the given objects from the drawing.
This will happen several times until I say the word "end". This completes the task."
Fixed parameters: t - task execution time; N - the number of images of objects viewed during the entire time of work, as well as separately for each 30-second interval; n is the number of errors made (necessary images omitted or unnecessary images crossed out).
Results processing: first, the number of objects in the picture viewed by the child for the entire time the task was completed, as well as separately for each 30-second interval, is counted.
GAMES AND EXERCISES
FOR CORRECTION AND DEVELOPMENT WORK
PSYCHO-GYMNASTICS
In the mirror shop
Target: development of observation, attention, memory. Creating a positive emotional background. Formation of a sense of confidence, as well as the ability to obey the requirements of another person.
Description. An adult (and then a child) shows the movements that all players must repeat after him exactly.
Instruction:“Now I will tell you a story about a monkey. Imagine that you are in a store with a lot of mirrors. A man walked in with a monkey on his shoulder. She saw herself in the mirrors and thought that these were other monkeys, and began to make faces at them. The monkeys in response made her exactly the same faces. She shook her fist at them, and they threatened her from the mirrors. She stamped her foot, and all the monkeys stamped. Whatever the monkey did, everyone else exactly repeated its movements. We start playing. I will be the monkey and you will be the mirrors.”
Note. At the stage of mastering the game, the role of the monkey is played by an adult. Then the children get the role of a monkey. At the same time, it is necessary to ensure that over time each child can fulfill this role. It is necessary to stop the game at the peak of children's interest, avoiding satiety, turning into pampering. Those “mirrors” that often make mistakes can drop out of the game (this increases the motivation to play).
Look at your hands
Target:
Required material: Recording (tape recorder) of R. Pauls' march "Red Flowers".
Description. Children, moving in a circle, accurately perform various hand movements shown by an adult or "commander".
Instruction:“Now we will play. For the game, we need to choose a commander who will come up with movements for the hands. First, I will be the commander, and then the one we choose with the help of a rhyme. All players, standing one behind the other in a circle, should begin to move to the music. The first will be the commander - now it will be me. Everyone carefully watches what hand movements the commander shows, and repeats them exactly after him. Let's start playing."
Note. At the stage of mastering the game, an adult shows the movements of the hands (options for showing hands: hands up, to the sides, on the belt, hands with clasped fingers stretched forward, brought behind the head, etc.). Then the children show the hand movements.
Hear the command
Target: development of voluntary attention.
Required material: tape recorder or record R. Gazizov "March"
Description. Each child must perform movements in accordance with the commands of an adult, uttered in a whisper. Commands are given only to perform calm movements. The game is played as long as the players listen well and accurately perform the task.
Instruction:“We will play the game “Listen to the command”. To do this, you need to stand in a circle one after another and move step by step to the music. When the sounds of music stop, you need to stop and listen carefully to me. At this time, I will whisper a command, such as "raise your hands", and all players must follow this command. Be careful!"
Note. Command examples: sit down; lean forward and stretch your arms forward; bend the right leg at the knee, spread the arms to the sides; sit on the floor and grab your knees with both hands, etc.
GAMES, TASKS AND EXERCISES,
FOR DEVELOPMENT
SENSOR ATTENTION
Find two identical items
Target: development of thinking, attention span, perception of form, size, observation, the formation of the ability to compare, analyze.
Equipment: drawing depicting five items or more, of which two items are the same; sharpened pencils.
Description. The child is offered:
a) a drawing depicting five objects, two of which are identical; it is required to find them, show and explain what is the similarity of these two objects (sheets 9-10);
b) a picture (card) depicting objects and a sample; it is necessary to find an object similar to a model, show it and explain what the similarity is;
c) a drawing (card) depicting more than five items (sheets 11-12); from the depicted objects it is necessary to form identical pairs, show them or connect them with lines drawn with a simple pencil, and explain what is the similarity of each pair.
Instruction:
a) “Look carefully at this card and find two identical objects among all the drawn objects. Show these objects and explain how they are similar. Get to work."
b) “Look, this picture shows objects. Each of them can find a pair. Connect each received pair (two identical objects) with lines and explain how they are similar. Get on with the job."
Laying out sticks
Target: development of voluntary attention, fine motor skills of fingers.
Equipment: counting sticks (pieces of thick insulating wire, straws for cocktails, etc.), pattern sample.
Description. The child is offered to lay out a pattern or silhouette of sticks according to the model (sheets 13-14).
a) 1st level of complexity - patterns in one line (cards);
b) 2nd level of complexity - simple silhouettes, consisting of 6 to 12 sticks (cards);
c) 3rd level of complexity - more complex silhouettes, consisting of 6 to 13 sticks (cards);
d) 4th level of complexity - complex with a large number of details, consisting of 10 to 14 sticks (cards).
Instruction:“Look what is shown in this picture (pattern, house, etc.)? Take the sticks and lay out of them exactly the same pattern (house ...). Be careful when posting. Get to work."
Find differences
Target: development of voluntary attention, switching and distribution of attention.
Equipment: card with the image of two pictures that have differences.
Description. The child is offered:
a) a series of pictures (sheets 16-17) with two pictures on each card; in each picture you need to find five differences;
b) a card with the image of two pictures (sheets 18-19), differing from each other in details. It is necessary to find all the existing differences.
Instruction:“Look closely at this card. It shows two pictures that differ from each other in various details. You need to quickly find all the differences. Start looking."
Laying out a mosaic pattern
Target: development of concentration and volume of attention, fine motor skills of the hand, the formation of the ability to work according to the model.
Equipment: mosaic pattern.
Description: the child is offered to lay out the mosaic according to the model (sheets 20-21): numbers, a letter, a simple pattern and a silhouette.
Instruction: “Look, this picture shows a number (letter, pattern, silhouette). From the mosaic you need to lay out exactly the same number (letter, pattern, silhouette) as in the figure. Be careful. Get to work."
stringing beads
Target: development of concentration and volume of attention, fine motor skills of fingers.
Equipment: sample for stringing beads; beads matching the pattern, or equally cut pieces of colored thick wire insulation; to complicate the task - large beads.
Description. The child is offered to string beads according to the model (sheet 23).
Instruction: “Look at these painted beads. Do you want to collect beads yourself? I will give you beads and a wire on which you need to string beads one after another exactly as they look in the picture.
Note. Working with large beads often causes difficulties for children. It is possible to use large beads only in the case of well-developed motor skills of the hand and as a complicating element of the game.
mixed forest
Target: development of observation, the formation of the ability to distribute attention.
Equipment: drawing depicting camouflaged trees.
Description. The child is given a drawing depicting disguised trees, among which he needs to find a birch (pine, the smallest Christmas tree).
Instruction:“Look, this picture shows trees in disguise. Among them, you need to find a birch (pine, the smallest Christmas tree) as soon as possible. Start looking."
Drawing by cells
Target: development of concentration and volume of attention, the formation of the ability to follow the model, the development of fine motor skills of the hand.
Equipment: a clean sheet of paper in a large cell (1x1) cm); sample for drawing; sharpened pencils.
Description. The child is offered to draw, according to the sample, a figure on a blank sheet in a cage with a simple pencil. The task has two levels of difficulty:
1st level of complexity - the sample consists of open figures (sheet 25);
2nd level of complexity - the sample consists of closed figures (sheet 26).
Instruction:“Look closely at the picture. It depicts a figure consisting of lines. Draw exactly the same figure in the cells on a clean sheet. Be careful!"
Note. It is not recommended to use a pen or felt-tip pen for drawing. If desired, the child can shade the closed figure with a colored pencil.
find a shadow
Target: development of observation.
Equipment: drawing with the image of a figure and a cast shadow.
Description. The child is offered a drawing depicting a snowman and its four shadows; knight and his three shadows (sheets 35-36).
Instruction:“Look at this picture carefully. It depicts a knight and his shadows. It is necessary to find among these shadows his real one.
Note. The correct answer is the second shadow of the knight. The task using sheet 36 (figures of a squirrel and a dolphin) is performed in a similar way.
What lies where?
Target: development of voluntary attention.
Equipment: a form with standards of figures and objects corresponding to these standards, as well as a rack and cut-out figures for manipulation (sheet 39).
Description. The child needs to distribute objects relative to the proposed standards of figures. The technique can be used in two versions.
1. A simplified version: on a separate form, a rack with patterns of figures is shown, and flat objects are cut out and laid out by the child on the shelves of the rack relative to the proposed patterns of figures (the standards are compared with objects).
2. A rack with shelves and patterns of figures, as well as objects are depicted on one form. The child must complete the task without manipulating objects. Show and explain your actions.
Instruction:“Look, on this form there is a rack with shelves on which geometric shapes are indicated: a rectangle, a triangle, another rectangle, a square, a circle, an oval. You need to lay out the carved objects that I have on the shelves so that they are next to the geometric figure that they look like. Explain your choice."
Builders
Target: development of observation, concentration and distribution of attention.
Equipment: a form with four drawings, one of which is a sample, and the other three differ from the sample in missing details; simple pencil.
Description. The child is offered a sheet with four drawings containing elements of the tower. The first drawing is a sample, the other three are different from each other and the sample. It is necessary to finish the missing elements so that all three drawings correspond to the sample (sheet 40).
Instruction:“Look closely at these four drawings. The first of them shows the finished tower, and the other three details of the tower were not completed. You need to finish the missing details for each tower so that all four towers are the same. Get to work."
Find the heroes of the show
Target: development of observation, distribution, switching and volume of attention.
Equipment: pictures depicting the heroes of the children's program - Piggy, Stepashki, Fili, disguised in the picture; a simple pencil (sheet 28).
Description. The child needs to find and circle the reverse side of a simple pencil for each of the figures of heroes disguised in the drawing.
Instruction:“Look closely at this picture. It disguised the figures of familiar heroes of the children's program: Piggy, Stepashki, Fili, Karkusha. It is necessary to find and trace each of the characters with a finger or the back of a pencil.
Find a track
Target: Development of voluntary attention.
Equipment: form with the image of a simple labyrinth, pencil.
Description. The child must go through the winding line of the labyrinth, drawing along it with a finger or the back end of a pencil.
Instruction:“Look at this picture, it shows a labyrinth. It is necessary to help Bunny go through this maze and get to the carrot (to the Christmas tree). It is necessary to go through the labyrinth without going beyond the contours of the line, without skipping the loops.
Find two identical animals
Target: development of voluntary attention.
Equipment: drawing depicting animals (mice, roosters, giraffes, elephants)
Description. The child is offered to find two identical animals in the picture.
Instruction:“Look closely at the picture. It depicts mice (roosters, giraffes, elephants). It is necessary to find the same mice among all mice.
Reproduction of geometric shapes
Target: development of voluntary attention, memory, thinking.
Equipment: pencil, blank sheet of paper corresponding to the size of the sample (13x10 cm).
Description. The child is offered to consider different geometric shapes, remember their location in order to reproduce them from memory on a clean sheet in 10 seconds.
Instruction:“Look carefully at these geometric figures and try to remember their location. After a while, I will remove the card, and you will have to draw the same geometric shapes on a piece of paper from memory, arranging and coloring them as it was on the sample ”(sheet 43).
Who is more attentive?
Target: development of the scope of attention, observation.
Equipment: pictures with the image of a different number of stars.
Description. The child is offered to look at a picture with painted stars for a few seconds (sheet 44) and answer (not counting) where the largest (smallest) number of objects is.
Instruction:“Look closely at the pictures. Here are the stars. Which picture contains the smallest (greatest) number of objects? Explain your choice. Start playing."
Target: development of voluntary attention.
Equipment: 48 chips with the image of objects (animals, birds) and 6 cards with the image of the same objects.
Description. Cards are distributed to all participants. The leader, taking out one chip from the bag, names the object (animal, bird) depicted on the chip. The player who has this item on the card takes a chip and closes the corresponding cell of the card with it. The winner is the one who first closes all the cells of his card.
Instruction:“Now we will play Lotto. Sit at a large common table wherever you want. I will give each of you one card, which depicts objects familiar to you (animals, birds). I will be leading. Be careful. I will take out one chip from the bag, on which one of the objects is depicted, and name it. Which of you will have exactly the same object on the card as shown on the chip, must say: "I have." In this case, I will give him this chip, which will need to close the cell on my card with the same image. So we will play until one of you closes first all the picture cells of your card. He will be the winner."
Note. At the first stage of the game, the leader is an adult, in the future, a child can take the role of the leader.
It is very good to exercise children in fixing geometric shapes in the following sequence:
1. Find objects in the room that have the shape of a ball, circle, square;
2. Find familiar geometric shapes in objects;
3. Then a simple material is offered, consisting of many different
geometric shapes;
How many circles, triangles, squares are there?
Describe a friend
Two children or a child with one of the adults stand with their backs to each other and take turns describing the hairstyle, face, clothes of the other; it turns out: who was more accurate in describing each other.
touch
The child closes his eyes, and one of those present touches his hands. The kid guesses and calls by name.
Children stand in a circle, an adult in the center. In his hands he has a cord about a meter long with a soft ball tied at the end or a stuffed bag. On a signal: "Catch!" - an adult rotates the cord, gradually lengthening it so that the bag falls under the feet of the players. When the bag approaches, the children should jump. If the bag touches the player's legs, then he has fallen for the bait and must go to the middle of the circle and rotate the cord until he catches someone.
To new places!
The players stand in a circle, each in a drawn circle. The adult says: "For a walk!" All the children follow him in a column, one at a time to a song they have learned or scattered. At the command of an adult: "To new places!" - the players scatter in circles. Everyone should stand on a new circle. The last placed players lose.
Find the ball
The players stand in a circle, close to each other, facing the center of the circle. The driver goes to the middle of the circle.
All children keep their hands behind their backs. One of them is given a medium-sized ball. Children begin to pass the ball to each other behind their backs. The driver tries to guess who has the ball. Turning now to one, then to another child, he says: “Hands!” At this requirement, the player must immediately stretch both hands forward. The one who had the ball, or who dropped the ball, becomes the driver.
GAMES AIMED ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF HEARING
ATTENTION
Target: auditory development.
Equipment: objects that make sounds familiar to children; screen.
Description. The host invites the children to listen and remember what is happening behind the door or screen. Then he asks to tell what they heard. The winner is the one who more and more accurately determines the sources of sound.
Instruction:“Now we will play the game “What do you hear?” and find out who is the most attentive. It is necessary in complete silence for some time (I detect it) to listen carefully to what is happening behind the door (screen). At the end of this time (1-2 minutes), it is necessary to name as many sounds as possible. In order for everyone to be given the opportunity to speak, it is necessary to name the sounds heard in the order of their turn. You cannot repeat sounds when naming. The one who names the most such sounds wins.
Note. You can play with a group of children or with one child. The order in the game can be set using a rhyme. Items that can be used for playing: a drum, a whistle, wooden spoons, a metallophone, a children's piano, containers with water for pouring it and creating sounds of pouring water, glass objects and a hammer for knocking on glass, etc.
Hear the sounds!
Target: development of voluntary attention.
Equipment: piano or audio recording.
Description. Each child performs movements in accordance with the sounds heard: a low sound - becomes a “weeping willow” pose (legs shoulder-width apart, arms slightly apart at the elbows and hanging, head tilted to the left shoulder), a high sound - becomes a “poplar” pose (heels together, toes apart, legs straight, arms raised up, head thrown back, look at the tips of the fingers).
Instruction:“Now we will play the game “Listen to the sounds!” and find out which of you carefully knows how to listen to the sounds of the pianoforte. There are low sounds (listening) and high sounds in sound (listening). We will play like this: if you hear the low sounds of the piano, you will have to stand in a pose (of a weeping willow ”(show with comments). Let's all become in the pose of a“ weeping willow ”. Like this. Well, if you hear high sounds of the piano, then you will have to take the poplar pose (show with comments). Let's all take this pose of the poplar. Be careful! Let's play."
Note. It is necessary to alternate sounds, gradually increasing the tempo.
Scouts
Target: development of motor-auditory memory, coordination of movements.
Equipment: chairs.
Description. Chairs are arranged in a certain way in the room. The game involves: scouts, commander, detachment (other children). The child - "scout" comes up with a route (passing between the spaced chairs), and the "commander", remembering the way, must guide the detachment.
Instruction:“Now we will play. One of you will be a scout and will come up with a route along which the commander must lead the detachment. Be careful, try to remember the route.
Note. To get acquainted with the game, an adult takes on the role of "scout" on himself.
Edible - inedible
Target: formation of attention, acquaintance with the properties of objects.
Equipment: ball, chalk
Description. Depending on the named object, whether it is edible or not), the child must catch or hit the ball thrown to him by an adult.
Instruction:“Now we will play. I will name the objects (eg apple, chair, etc.). If the named object is edible, then you must catch the ball and move forward one square drawn in chalk. If the named object is inedible, then you must hit the thrown ball, and then move forward one cell. If an incorrect answer is given (the ball is not caught, although the object is edible, or it is caught, although the object is inedible), then the player remains in the same class. The child who first comes to the last class becomes the leader.
Note. If you are playing with two or three children, then up to 10 classes can be drawn, and if you are playing with four or five children, then you need to draw 5-6 classes.
Examples of the names of objects for the game: ball, orange, window, cheese, doll, onion, book, pie, cutlet, house, soap, cake, bun, tomato, cucumber, scissors, etc.
Listening to the silence
Everyone is invited to listen to the silence, and then determine who heard what in the silence.
TOPICS OF CONVERSATIONS WITH PARENTS
1. Attention and its role in learning activities.
2. Age features of the attention of preschoolers.
3. Is it possible to control the attention of a preschooler?
4. Formation of attention and consideration of its individual characteristics in
educational work with preschoolers.
5. Violation of attention in childhood.
6. Psychological and pedagogical assistance to children - preschoolers with a violation
attention.
7. Joint work of teachers and parents on the development of arbitrary
attention in preschool children.
Topic 1. Attention and its role in learning activities.
Issues for discussion:
1. Deliberate attention as one of the indispensable conditions for successful
learning at school.
2. Typical problems of schooling arising from
unformed voluntary attention.
3. Timely assistance to children with impaired attention.
Literature:
Rainbow: Program and method. guide to the upbringing, development and education of children aged 6-7 in kindergarten / Ed. T.N. Doronova M., 1997
Cheremoshkina L.V. Development of children's attention: A popular guide for parents and educators. Yaroslavl, 1997
Ovcharova R.V. Reference book of the school psychologist. 2nd ed., revised. M, 1996
Topic 2. Development of attention in a preschooler
Issues for discussion:
1. Characteristics of normally developing attention in children 5-7 years old.
2. Ways and means of developing attention through the formation of cognitive
abilities of the child: thinking, memory, perception, imagination.
3. Characteristics of games and exercises aimed at developing attention and
the possibility of using them at home with children.
Games and exercises that can be used at home:
1. Dominoes, lotto, checkers, mosaic.
2. Coloring according to the sample and drawing elementary patterns according to the sample.
3. Laying out of sticks, matches of figures, objects, patterns according to the model.
4. Games for the development of auditory attention: "Recognize by voice", "Be
attentive”, “Listen to the pops”.
5. Games for the development of visual attention: “What is missing?”, “What
changed?”, “What is the difference between the two pictures?”, “Origami with the whole family”.
Literature:
Psychology of preschool children / Ed. A.V. Zaporoshchets, D.B. Elkonin. M., 1964
Tabarina T.I. Origami and child development: A popular guide for parents and educators. Yaroslavl, 1996
Chistyakova M.I. Psychogymnastics. 2nd ed. / Ed. M.I. Buyanov. M., 1995. See also literature on topic 1.
Topic 3. The role of an adult in the development of voluntary attention in preschool children
Issues for discussion:
1. The relevance of the problem of the development of voluntary attention in children
senior preschool age.
2. The contribution of domestic scientists to the study of the problem of the development of attention in
in general and the development of attention in preschool children
(L.S. Vygotsky, D.B. Elkonin, P.Ya. Golperin, S.L. Kabylnitskaya,
N.F. Dobrynin and others).
3. The importance of the timely development of the main properties of attention -
stability, concentration, switchability, distribution,
volume - at the senior preschool age.
4. Characteristics of normally developing attention in children 5-7 years old.
5. The role of an adult in the development of voluntary attention in children aged 5-7 years.
References:
1. Rainbow: Program and method. guidance on education, development and
education of children 6-7 years old in kindergarten.
2. Tikhomirova L.F. Development of cognitive abilities in children:
A popular guide for parents and educators. Yaroslavl, 1996
3. Tikhomirova L.F., Basov A.V. Development of logical thinking of children.
Yaroslavl, 1995
4. Cheremoshkina L.V. Development of children's attention
5. Chistyakova M.I. Psychogymnastics.
COUNTERS
Rain, rain, water - A hare ran through the swamp,
There will be a grain harvest. He was looking for a job
There will be rolls, there will be drying, Yes, I did not find work,
There will be delicious cheesecakes. I cried and went.
Do-re-mi-fa-sol-la-si! Hedgehog hedgehog, eccentric
The cat eats in a taxi. Sewed a prickly jacket.
And the kittens clung, I stood in a circle and, well, count,
And ride for free! We have to choose a vodilka!
One, two, three, four, five. Whether I lived, whether you.
The bunny went out for a walk. There was an argument between us.
Suddenly the hunter runs out, Who started, forgot
Shoots directly at the rabbit. And we are still not friends.
Bang Bang! Missed. Suddenly the game this time
The gray bunny has escaped! Will he be able to reconcile us?
One, two, three, four, five. We spin jump ropes faster -
We're here to play. Let's run more fun.
Forty flew to us. You count your jumps,
And I told you to drive. Hooked - fly out.
One, two, three, four, five. Like our backyard
Bunny, umbrella, kite, basket, Two black grouse arrived,
Vase, air and rubber, pecked - flew away,
Teeth, goat and basins, pecked - flew away,
Zoo, factory, carts. They sat down on the green meadow!
Count, don't be lazy!
Look, make no mistake!
Tili-tili-tili bom, the cuckoo was walking through the garden,
A bunny knocked down a pine tree with his forehead. She pecked at the grapes.
I feel sorry for the bunny: The cuckoo walked past the market,
The bunny is wearing a bump. stepped on the basket
Hurry up and run into the forest, And fell into the pit - bang!
Make Bunny a compress! Squashed forty flies!
They buzzed, buzzed, Time is not a pity:
The bees sat on the flowers. One two three four…
We play - you drive. One hundred - that's the whole rhyme.
EMPIRICAL STUDIES OF THE PROBLEM OF FORMING VOLUNTARY ATTENTION IN CHILDREN OF OLDER PRESCHOOL AGE IN SPECIALLY ORGANIZED LESSONS, AS WELL AS IN GAMES TARGETLY PLANNED FOR EACH LESSON IN THE DEFINING EXPERIMENT
The base of our research was kindergarten No. 1 "Spikelet" of the Lyubinsky district of the Omsk region, which is located along Pochtovaya street. The group was divided into two subgroups of 15 people. The PURPOSE of the ascertaining experiment was to identify the level of development of voluntary attention in children of older preschool age.
ATTENTION ASSESSMENT METHODS
Attention is one of the main psychological processes, the characteristics of which determine the assessment of a child's cognitive readiness for schooling. Many problems that arise in teaching, especially in its initial period, are directly related to shortcomings in the development of attention.
Under sustainability attention is understood as its ability to remain at the same sufficiently high level for a long period of time. Distribution attention is understood as such a characteristic of it that allows you to simultaneously keep many different objects in the sphere of attention and perceive them with approximately the same attention. The same characteristic of attention applies to the ability to keep in the sphere of attention large space or a significant part of the area of some object. Switching attention is considered as such a property of it, which allows a person to switch attention from one object to another, to be distracted from the first and focus on the second. Volume attention is the number of objects that can simultaneously be in the sphere of human attention.
Method #1
Assessment of the level of development of voluntary attention of children of senior preschool age (Cheremoshkina L.V. A popular guide for parents and teachers. Development of children's attention. Yaroslavl 1998, p. 21.).
Method #2
The study of the features of the distribution of attention by the method of correction tests (Bourdon's method). (Bogdanova T.G., Kornilova T.V. Diagnosis of the cognitive sphere of the child. M .: Rosped agency 1994, p. 14-17).
Method #1
Target: identification of the level of development of stability, the volume of switching and the distribution of the child's voluntary attention.
Description of the technique: The child is asked to complete the task in three stages. At the first stage, the child, following the model, enters signs into geometric shapes. At the second stage, he crosses out and circles two specific objects out of four, as directed by an adult. At the third stage, he crosses out the drawn insects in all figures. The level of development of voluntary attention is determined by the sum of the results of three separately processed stages of work.
Equipment: three sheets: 1) an image of geometric figures; 2) the image of real objects - a fish, a balloon, an apple and a watermelon; 3) a set of familiar geometric shapes, two of which depict flies and caterpillars. Each sheet has 10 rows of figures (10 in each row). The top four figures are sample work for the test subject; a simple pencil, a watch with a second hand, a protocol for fixing parameters.
Instruction:“This picture shows geometric shapes. Now I will draw signs in each of the four upper shapes. You must place the same signs in all other shapes of the sheet. You can check your actions with a model.
First stage.
“On the sheet are drawn fish, apples, air balloons and watermelons. I ask you to cross out all the fish, and circle the apples.
Second phase.
“On this card, geometric shapes you already know are drawn. Flies got into the squares, and caterpillars settled in the rhombuses. You must cross out the cards of both flies and caterpillars in all figures.
Third stage.
During the experiment, it is necessary to pay attention to the behavior of the subject:
Distracted from work or not;
How often was a reminder needed to continue work;
How often did the subject compare his actions with the sample;
Did you try to check yourself; if so, how.
Fixed parameters: 1) the time of filling out each card; 2) the number of mistakes made when filling out each card (skipping the desired figure, an erroneous icon, extra icons.
Results processing:
To assess the level of development of voluntary attention of a child of 5-7 years old, it is necessary to calculate the average time to fill out a card using the formula:
t = (t1 + t2 + t3): 3
where t is the arithmetic mean time of filling one card, in seconds;
t1 - time to fill card 4, and t2,3 cards five and six, respectively.
h = (h1 + h2 + h3): 3
where h is the arithmetic mean number of errors; h1, h2, h3 - the number of errors based on the results of the corresponding stages of the experiments.
Regulations:
Note .
To get a complete picture of the characteristics of the attention of the child, it is necessary to carefully analyze the following information. Children around the age of 6 quite often turn to the model when completing a task - this indicates a small amount of their attention. If the child is often distracted and you feel that your presence and your care is necessary for him, this certainly indicates a weak attention span.
In addition, you can determine the error difference (RO) between the third and the first two stages: RO = n3- (n1 + n2).
If RO turns out to be a positive value, then this indicates a decrease in the child's intellectual activity by the end of the experiment, a decrease in active attention, in other words, a decrease in the degree of concentration of attention and the inability to arbitrarily regulate this process.
Conclusion: In subgroup No. 1, 8 children have an average time to fill out the card 2 minutes. 10 sec. and more, which corresponds to the level of below average and low. The number of errors has 3 or more, the remaining 7 children with the number of 3 errors or less have an average time of 1 min. 50 sec to 2 min. 10 sec. All children quickly got tired and were often distracted by extraneous matters (see Appendix No. 1). Some children tried to talk about their favorite things, relatives, toys, some began to examine their hands, bows, etc., which naturally interfered with work and spent more time, and also contributed to the appearance of errors in work.
In subgroup No. 2, 11 out of 15 children have 6 or more errors and an average time of 2 minutes. 10 sec. and more. They were often distracted and quickly tired (by about 4-5 rad at the first stage). 4 people have 3 or more (up to 6) errors with an average time of 1 min. 50 sec. - 2 minutes. The children often turned to the model, were often distracted from the task (they paid attention to their clothes, hairstyle, etc.)
Method #2
Target: identify the level of distribution of voluntary attention.
Description of the technique:
The progress of the task.
The experiment is carried out with one of the types of correction test and consists of two series following one after another with a break of 5 minutes. In the first series of experiments, the child, looking through the correction table, must, as quickly as possible, cross out, for example, two letters (C and K) in various ways. In order to take into account the dynamics of work productivity for each minute, the psychologist says the word “line” after a minute. The child should mark with a vertical line on the line of the table the place that corresponds to the moment the psychologist pronounces the word “line”, and continue to work on new forms, crossing out and circling other elements. (Graphic material, p. 7.8).
Results processing:
In each series, you need to determine the productivity of work by minutes and in general for the series, that is, count the number of letters viewed and the number of errors. An error is the omission of those letters that should be crossed out, as well as incorrect strikethrough.
Based on the obtained quantitative data, it is possible to build graphs of the dynamics of work productivity by minutes for each series.
Comparison of the number of errors in each series with the number of viewed elements allows one to judge the level of distribution of attention in the child. In addition, it makes it possible to draw a conclusion about the nature of the dynamics of the child's work in each series of experiments, to determine whether exercise or fatigue of the child was observed during the performance of the task.
Conclusion:
In subgroup No. 1 out of 15 people, 9 children did not cope with the task, they often asked: “Is there to trace around here?” or put a stick here? (See Appendix No. 2) They turned to the teacher for help, which interfered with the task, made a large number of mistakes and omissions, which indicates an insufficient distribution of attention when doing work, 6 children have an average level, make fewer mistakes and omissions in work. Outwardly, fatigue was observed in children.
In subgroup No. 2, 11 children have a low level of attention distribution, as they made a large number of mistakes, including omissions (See Appendix No. 2). 4 children have an average level - they made fewer mistakes and omissions.
\
LITERATURE
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2. Children's ditties, jokes, jokes. A popular guide for parents and educators.
Yaroslavl, Academy of Development, 1997
3. Issues of psychology 1990, no. 4 p. 161-167
4. Volkov B.S., Volkova N.V. Child psychology in questions and answers M., 2002
5. Tikhomirova L.F. Exercises for every day: development of attention and imagination
preschoolers. A popular guide for parents and educators. Yaroslavl, Academy of Development,
Holding Academy, 2000
6. Bondarenko A.K. Word games in kindergarten: A guide for kindergarten teachers. M., 1974
7. Burmenskaya G.V. Reading book on child psychology. M., 1996
8. Vasilyeva N.N., Novotortseva N.V. Educational games for preschoolers: A popular guide for
parents and teachers. Yaroslavl, 1996
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Preschool education. 1974 No. 12.
10. Developmental and pedagogical psychology / Ed. A.V. Petrovsky M., 1973
11. Vygotsky L.S. The history of the development of higher psychological functions // Sobr. cit.: In 6 vols. M., 1983. Vol.
12. Vygotsky L.S. Thinking and speech // Ibid. T.2.
13. Gavrikov K.V., Glazachev O.S., Berdnikova T.K. The system of medical and pedagogical control
readiness and adaptation of children of 6 years of age to study at school: informational
methodical writing. Volgograd, 1988
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16. Gonobolin F.N. Attention and his teacher. M., 1972
17. Granovskaya R.M. Elements of practical psychology. L., 1988
18. Child psychologist. 1993 No. 6.
19. James W. Attention: An Attention Reader. M., 1976. S. 50-103.
20. Diagnosis and correction of the mental development of preschoolers / Ed. Ya.L. Kolominsky, E.A.
Panko. Minsk, 1997
21. Diagnostics of the cognitive sphere of the child / Ed. T.G. Bogdanova, T.V. Kornilova M., 1994
22. Dobrynin N.F. On the theory and education of attention // Sov. pedagogy. 1938 No. 8.
23. Dobrynin N.F. and others. Developmental psychology: a course of lectures. M., 1965
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25. Domashenko I.A., Gamezo M.V. Atlas of psychology. M., 1986
26. Preschool education, 1690, No. 12 p. 6-9.
27. Preschool education, 1960 No. 12 p. 46.
28. Ermolaeva M.V., Erofeeva I.G. Guidelines for the use of psychological
preschooler card (readiness for school). Moscow-Voronezh, 2002
29. Osipova A.A., Malashinskaya L.I. Diagnostics and correction of attention. Program for children
5-9 years old. M., 2001
30. Psychological journal 1982 T.Z. No. 5 p. 54-65.
31. Reader on attention, ed. Leontieva A.N., Puzyreya A.A., Romanova V.Ya. M., 1976. p. 184-219.
32. Fesyukova L.B. from 3 to 7. A book for dads, moms, grandparents. Kharkiv, Rostov-on-Don
"Phoenix", 1997
33. Psychology of a preschooler. Reader for students of secondary pedagogical educational institutions. M.,
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34. Uruktaeva G.A. Preschool psychology. Textbook M., Academy, 1997
35. Uruktaeva G.A. Diagnosis of preschool children M., Academy, 1997
Moscow City Pedagogical Gymnasium-Laboratory No. 1505.
Abstract on the topic:
"Psychology of Attention"
The work was done by a student of grade 9 "A"
Levshina Alexandra
Scientific adviser: Glebkin V.V.
Moscow, 2011
- Introduction
- Chapter I
- Chapter II
- Chapter III
- Dictionary
- Conclusion
- Bibliography
Introduction.
I chose this essay topic because I am very interested in various psychological processes of our consciousness, and in particular - attention. One of the features of our spiritual life is that, being under a constant influx of new impressions, we notice and note only a small part, and it is this part that continuously enters the brain of external impressions and internal sensations, stands out by our attention and appears in the form of images, is fixed by memory. and eventually becomes the content of consciousness. For example, we realize with a delay that we managed to quite purposefully climb a tree under which a bear is running, or how we braked sharply in response to the sudden appearance of a dog on the roadway. Attention is one of those human cognitive processes that scientists have been studying for many decades. Some scientists argue that attention as an independent cognitive process does not exist at all, that it acts only as a moment of any other psychological process or human activity. Other scientists believe that attention is an independent mental process and a special psychological state of a person. They argue, firstly, that attention has its own properties that other mental processes and states do not have. These are distribution, concentration, switching, persistence, selectivity, and volume (attention volume is not the same as memory volume). Secondly, that in the human brain it is possible to distinguish special structures and processes associated specifically with attention.
As a result of working on the abstract, my main goals are to understand the definition of attention, to learn about its special characteristics, and to find out with which group of scientists I could agree. To achieve the result, I need to read all the declared literature and understand the topic.
For writing the essay, I used a lot of useful literature. The main sources of information were a textbook on psychology by R.S. Nemov and the textbook "General Psychology in Schemes and Comments" edited by V.G. Krysko. I also used the "Big Psychological Dictionary" edited by B.G. Meshcheryakova and V.P. Zinchenko. This essay will consider the definition of attention, its characteristics, properties, functions and types.
The first chapter will be devoted to the definition of attention, its types, functions, properties and features. The second chapter deals with the formation and development of attention, and the third one deals with the theories of attention.
Chapter I
1.1.Definition of attention.
Attention is the selective focus of human consciousness on certain objects and phenomena, i.e. formally, attention can be defined as a process that provides selective perception, processing, memorization and use of sensory information by a person: sensations, images, thoughts, experiences, etc. The action of attention is expressed in the concentration of the human psyche on a relatively narrow section of external reality or the internal environment of the organism. Attention is a process that promotes the selection of one information coming through the senses, and ignoring the other.
1.2.properties of attention.
Human attention has six properties: stability, concentration, distribution, switchability, volume and selectivity. Now let's look at each of them separately:
· Sustainability attention is manifested in its ability to remain at a constant level for a long time. Absolutely stable attention does not exist, and cannot be. At each moment of time, due to various reasons that constantly distract a person’s attention from what he is doing, his attention fluctuates slightly. Sustainability can depend on various factors. Some of them are associated with the individual, physiological characteristics of a person, in particular with the properties of his nervous system. People with a weak nervous system or those who are in a state of nervous excitement can quickly get tired, therefore, their attention becomes more unstable. A person who does not feel very well physically, as a rule, is also characterized by unstable attention. The lack of interest in the work being done contributes to the frequent distraction of attention from it and vice versa, the presence of interest retains attention for a long period of time, even if the person is tired.
· Concentration(or concentration; the opposite quality is absent-mindedness) manifests itself in the ability of attention to gather, limit, concentrate on one thing, being distracted from everything else at a given time. The degree of concentration of attention on an object can be different: from complete ignoring (non-perception) of everything that is happening around, to parallel - observing what is happening around (distribution of attention).
· switchability is understood as his transfer from one subject to another and switching from one type of activity to another. This characteristic of attention is manifested in the speed with which a person can transfer his attention from one object to another, and such a transfer can be both arbitrary and involuntary. Sometimes we switch our attention in order to give our body a rest and restore the working capacity of the nervous system.
· Distribution manifests itself in its ability to be distributed among several objects or spread over a significant part of space. Depends on the psychological and physical condition of the person.
· Volume- this is a quantitative and qualitative characteristic, which is determined by the number of objects that a person is simultaneously able to keep in his attention (the numerical characteristic of an adult is from 5 to 7 objects)
· Selectivity is his focus on the most important subjects.
1.3.Types of attention.
All types of attention can be divided into two classifications.
According to the degree of activity and awareness:
Involuntary attention is called, which occurs not by the will of a person in the processes that control attention and regulate it. Such attention arises, changes and disappears on its own, apart from the desire and consciousness of a person. For example, we involuntarily pay attention to unusual sounds, unexpected flashes of light, pungent odors, sudden touches on the body, and so on.
Arbitrary attention is called, which is associated with the participation of the will of a person. In this case, a person consciously and purposefully turns his attention to some object, keeps his attention on it for a certain time, and switches his attention to a new object himself. For example, at some point a person may need to find a certain thought in readable text. The very process of reading will be a conscious, intelligent and purposeful activity. Attention will be held on the text and its content until the desired thought is found.
Post-voluntary attention is the attention that appears in a person some time after he voluntarily kept his attention on something. For example, if a person started doing something and continues to do it for a sufficiently long time, then over time he will no longer need to make volitional efforts in order to continue to keep his attention on this object. However, not all scientists agree with the statement about the existence of post-voluntary attention.
By the nature of attention management:
Direct attention is called, which is generated, held and regulated only by the object to which it is directly directed. For example, if we accidentally looked at something, and what was in our field of vision at a given moment of time attracted attention to itself, this will be direct attention.
Indirect attention is attention that is attracted and regulated not by the object to which it is directly directed, but by something else. For example, we can ask a person to pay attention to something, leave an object in a conspicuous place with the expectation that the person who sees it will pay attention not only to this object, but also to something else related to this object. . Or we can draw an arrow in the direction of the subject that we want to pay attention to.
1.4. attention functions.
Attention in human life and activity performs many different functions. It activates the necessary and inhibits the currently unnecessary psychological and physiological processes. Directivity and selectivity of cognitive processes are connected with attention. Their setting directly depends on what at a given time seems to be more important for the body. Attention determines the accuracy and detail of perception, the strength and selectivity of memory, the focus and productivity of mental activity. In the system of interpersonal relations, attention contributes to better mutual understanding, adaptation of people to each other, prevention and timely resolution of interpersonal conflicts. An attentive person is said to be a pleasant conversationalist, a tactful and delicate communication partner. An attentive person learns better and more successfully, achieves more in life than an insufficiently attentive one.
Chapter II
2. 1 Formation and development of attention.
Attention, like all mental processes, has lower and higher forms. As a lower mental function, attention is presented as direct and involuntary. And as the highest mental function - arbitrary and mediated attention. The history of a child's attention is the history of the development of the organization of his behavior. Voluntary attention arises from the fact that the people surrounding the child begin to direct the attention of the child with the help of a number of stimuli and means, to direct his attention, to subordinate him to their power, and thereby put into the hands of the child the means by which he later himself masters his attention. From the very first days of a child's life, the development of his attention takes place in an environment that includes a double range of stimuli that affect attention. The first row is the objects surrounding the child, which, with their bright unusual properties, attract his attention. The second row is the speech of an adult, the words he utters, which initially act as stimuli-indications that direct the attention of the child. Thus, from the first days of a child's life, his attention to a large extent turns out to be directed with the help of stimulus words. Along with the gradual mastery of active speech, the child begins to control attention, and first - the attention of other people, and then his own. First, people act in a certain way in relation to the child, directing him with attention; then he himself interacts with others, regulating their attention, and then the child begins to act on himself, controlling his own attention. At first, an adult directs his attention with words to the things around him and thus develops powerful stimuli from words - indications; then the child begins to actively participate in this indication and himself begins to use the word and sound as a means of indicating, that is, to draw the attention of adults to objects of interest to him.
Initially, the processes of voluntary attention, directed by the speech of an adult, become for the child, rather, the processes of his external discipline than the self-regulation of attention.
The first weeks are the months of life.
The appearance of an orienting reflex as an objective, innate feature, the presence of involuntary and direct attention of the child.
End of the first year of life.
The emergence of tentative-research activity as a means of future development of voluntary attention. At this time, the child does not just react to new impressions, but actively seeks them out. Such behavior can be considered as a prerequisite for the emergence and development of voluntary attention in the future.
The beginning of the second year of life.
Detection of the rudiments of voluntary attention under the influence of the adult's speech instructions, his gestures, the direction of his gaze on the object named or indicated by the adult. At this stage, an adult begins to use the means of controlling the child's attention - such that in the future the child himself could use to voluntarily control the attention of other people.
The second - the third year of life.
Good development of the above forms of attention, the beginning of the active use by the child himself of the means offered to him in order to control the attention of adults.
Four and a half - five years.
The child's ability to direct his attention to something under the influence of a complex verbal instruction of an adult. The beginning of the development of symbolic controls (signs, drawings). At this time, egocentric speech appears in children, which becomes a means of controlling their own attention in the game, that is, at this stage, one can state the beginning of the development of voluntary and mediated attention in the child.
Five - six years.
The emergence of an elementary form of voluntary attention under the influence of self-instruction, relying on external, auxiliary means. Inner speech becomes the internal means of controlling the attention of the child.
School age.
Further development and improvement of voluntary and mediated attention on the basis of inner speech and more advanced external means.
2.2. Attention disorders.
There are three main groups of attention deficits: hypoprosexia, hyperprosexia, and paraprosexia.
At hypoprosexia There are various types of distraction. Complete inability to concentrate, concentration of attention is called aproxia. The latter is accompanied by increased distractibility.
At hyperprosexia attention is increased, and often due to its one-sided focus. For example, patients with hypochondriacal states show a pathologically increased attention to their painful sensations and everything that is related to health.
paraprosexia- a perversion of attention, which is more often understood as its concentration on objects of a pathological nature (delusions, hallucinations). Most often, this occurs with an excessively strong tension of attention, which in itself becomes unbearable for the human nervous system, which causes paradoxical reactions from attention. Paraprosexia can also occur in healthy people. For example, an athlete at the start does not hear the shot of the starting pistol, although he was actively concentrating and preparing for this moment.
III Chapter.
theories of attention.
One of the most famous psychological theories attention was offered by T. Ribot. He believed that attention is always associated with emotions and is caused by them. Therefore, he assumed a close relationship between emotions and voluntary attention. Involuntary attention also depends on affective states. Cases of deep and sustained involuntary attention show all the signs of an indefatigable passion, constantly renewed and ever hungry for gratification.
According to T. Ribot, the motor effect of attention is that some sensations receive a special intensity compared to others due to the fact that all motor activity is focused on them. The secret of voluntary attention lies in the ability to control movements. Arbitrarily restoring movements, we thereby draw our attention to this. These are character traits motor theory attention according to T. Ribot.
There is another theory linking attention to the concept of set. This theory was proposed by D.N. Uznadze and at first concerned a special kind of state of preliminary adjustment, which, under the influence of experience, arises in the body and determines its reactions to subsequent actions.
For example, if a person is given two objects of the same volume, but different in weight, then he will evaluate the weight of other, identical objects differently. The one that ends up in the hand where the lighter item was before will appear heavier this time, and vice versa, although the two new items will actually be the same in every way.
Installation, according to D.N. Uznadze, is directly related to attention. Internally, it expresses the state of human attention. On the basis of the setting that is relevant in each given case, a number of mental contents grow in the consciousness of the subject, which he experiences with a sufficient degree of clarity and distinctness in order to be able to navigate in the conditions of the situation.
An interesting concept of attention was proposed by P. Ya. Galperin. The main provisions of the theory:
1. Attention is one of the moments of orienting and research activity, which is a psychological action aimed at the content of the image that is currently in the human psyche.
2. According to its function, attention represents control over this content. In every human action there is an indicative, performing and control part.
3. Unlike other actions, attention does not have a particular result.
4. Attention as a specific act stands out when the action becomes not only mental, but also reduced.
5. In attention, control is carried out using a sample, which creates the possibility of comparing the results of an action and clarifying it.
6. Arbitrary attention - systematically carried out attention (a form of control performed according to a pre-compiled model)
7. In order to form a new method of voluntary attention, we must, along with the main activity, offer the person the task of checking its progress and results.
8. All acts of attention are the result of the formation of new mental actions.
Chapter I V
Dictionary.
Inner speech is silent speech that occurs in the process of thinking. It is a derivative form of external speech, specially adapted to the performance of mental operations in the mind.
Child psychology is a branch of psychology that studies the patterns of a child's mental development.
Activity is an active interaction with the surrounding reality, during which a living being acts as a subject, purposefully influencing an object and satisfying its needs.
Cognitive activity is an activity that is formed in the process of education and upbringing by the end of preschool age.
Impulsivity is a feature of human behavior, which consists in the tendency to act on the first impulse, under the influence of external circumstances or emotions.
Conflict is a contradiction, a clash of opposing interests, goals and opinions.
Approximately - research activity - an activity aimed at examining surrounding objects in order to obtain the information necessary to solve the tasks facing the subject.
Psychology is the science of the patterns of development and functioning of the psyche as a special form of life.
Consciousness is the ability to adequately perceive the surrounding reality.
Egocentric speech - speaking without trying to stand on the point of view of the interlocutor, which is typical for a child.
Conclusion.
Many problems that arise in learning are directly related to deficiencies in the development of attention. In ontogenesis, attention changes little, and its main characteristics remain fairly stable with age, but over time, many shortcomings can be eliminated, because some underdeveloped properties of attention are compensated by the enhanced development of other qualities. For example, poor attention span is compensated by good switchability.
Thus, in the abstract the topic was considered: "Psychology of attention". And we can conclude that attention includes the formation of a sense of responsibility for the work performed, a clear organization of the activities performed and the development of interest in it; has six properties, five types and three main groups of attention disorders.
As a result of the work, I achieved my goal, i.e. I learned a lot of new information about attention. And I can agree with the second group of scientists that attention is an independent mental process and a special psychological state of a person, because it has its own characteristics.
“It should be noted that when a person wants to focus on something, he makes significant efforts of consciousness, concentrates his will, begins to control his actions. His behavior changes, caution appears, visual perception becomes sharper.
S.L. Rubinstein.
Bibliography:
Books:
1. Big Psychological Dictionary. Edited by B.G. Meshcheryakov, V.P. Zinchenko. - M.: 2009
2. Galperin P.Ya. To the problem of attention, Reader on attention. –M., 1976
3. Krysko V.G. General psychology in schemes and comments: St. Petersburg: 2009
4. Nemov R.S. Psychology: Textbook. – M.: 2008.
5. Ribot T. Psychology of attention // Reader on attention.-M., 1976. With. 71-72
6. Uznadze D.N. Installation in a person, Reader for attention. -M., 1976. - p.266
Lectures on General Psychology Luria Alexander Romanovich
Development of attention
Development of attention
Signs of the development of stable involuntary attention are clearly manifested already in the very first weeks of a child's life. They can be observed in the early symptoms of the manifestation of the orienting reflex - fixing the gaze of an object and stopping sucking movements at the first examination of objects or manipulating them. It can be asserted with good reason that the first conditioned reflexes begin to develop in the infant on the basis of the orienting reflex, in other words, only if he pays attention to the stimulus, singles it out, and concentrates on it.
At first, the child's involuntary attention in the first months of life has the character of a simple orienting reflex to strong or new stimuli, tracking them with the eye, a "concentration reflex" on them. Only later does the child's involuntary attention acquire more complex forms and, on its basis, orienting-exploratory activity begins to take shape in the form of manipulating objects, but at first this orienting-exploratory activity is very unstable, and as soon as another object appears, the manipulation of the first object stops. This shows that already in the first year of a child's life, the tentative-exploratory reflex here is quickly depleted in nature, easily inhibited by extraneous influences and at the same time reveals the features of "addiction" already known to us and fades away with prolonged repetition. However, the most significant problem lies in the higher, arbitrarily regulated forms of attention. These forms of attention are manifested primarily in the subordination of behavior to the verbal instructions of an adult, and then, much later, in the formation of stable types of self-regulating voluntary attention of the child.
It would be wrong to think that such guiding attention, the regulating influence of speech, arises in a child all at once. The facts show that the verbal instruction "give me lala" evokes in the child only a general orienting reaction and affects the child if it is accompanied by a real action by an adult. It is characteristic that at first the speech of an adult who names an object attracts the child's attention if the name of the object coincides with his direct perception. In those cases when the named object is not in the immediate field of vision of the child, speech evokes in him only a general orienting reaction, which quickly fades away.
Only towards the end of the first and beginning of the second year of life does the naming of an object or a speech command begin to gain influence; the child directs his gaze to the named object, distinguishing it from the rest, or looking for it if the object is not in front of him. However, at this stage, the influence of the adult's speech, which directs the child's attention, is still very unstable, and the orienting reaction it evokes very quickly gives way to a direct orienting reaction to a brighter, newer, or more interesting object for the child. This can be clearly seen if a child of this age is given instructions to get an object located at some distance from him. In this case, the child's gaze is directed to this object, but quickly slips to other, closer objects, and the child begins to reach out with his hand not to the named, but to a closer or brighter stimulus.
By the middle of the second year of life, the fulfillment of the adult's verbal instruction, which directs the selective attention of the child, becomes more stable, but here, too, a relatively slight complication of the experience easily disrupts its influence. So, it is enough to delay the execution of a speech instruction for a short period of time (sometimes by 15–30 seconds) so that it loses its guiding influence, and the child, who immediately followed it without difficulty, begins to reach out to foreign objects that directly attract him. The same disruption in the execution of a speech instruction can be achieved in another way. If several times in a row you offer the child, in front of which there are two objects (for example, a cup and a glass), the instruction “give me a cup!”, And then, fixing it, replace it with another one and say to the child “give me a glass!” in the same tone, the child, whose activity is characterized by considerable inertia, obeys this inert stereotype and continues to reach for the cup, repeating his previous movements.
Only in the middle of the second year of life does the adult's verbal instruction acquire a sufficiently strong ability to organize the child's attention, however, even at this stage it easily loses its regulatory significance. Thus, a child of this age can easily follow the instruction “coin under the cup, give me a coin” if the coin was hidden under the cup in front of his eyes, but if this did not take place and the coin was hidden under one of the objects unnoticed by the child, directing orienting reflex, and the child begins to reach for objects located in front of him, acting independently of the verbal instruction.
Thus, the action of the speech instruction directing the attention of the child is ensured at the early stages only in those cases when it coincides with the direct perception of the child.
A child of one and a half - two years of age can easily begin to follow the verbal instruction "press the ball" if the rubber balloon is in his hand. However, the movements of pressing the balloon caused by the verbal command do not stop, and the child continues to press the balloon many times in a row even after he is additionally given the order: “Do not press!”
The verbal instruction sets the movement in motion, but cannot slow it down, and the motor reactions caused by it continue to be carried out inertly, regardless of its influence.
The boundaries of the guiding influence of a speech instruction become especially clear when the speech instruction becomes more complex. So, considering the behavior of a small child who is given a verbal instruction: "When there is a light, you will press the ball," requiring establishing a connection between the two elements of the formulated condition, one can easily see that it does not immediately acquire an organizing influence from him. The child, perceiving each part of this instruction, gives a direct motor reaction and, having heard the fragment: “When there is a light ...”, begins to look for this light, and having heard the fragment: “You will press the ball”, immediately begins to press the balloon.
In this way, if by the age of 2-2.5 years a simple speech instruction can direct the child's attention and lead to a fairly clear performance of a motor act, a complex speech instruction requiring a preliminary synthesis of the elements included in it cannot yet cause the necessary organizing influence.
Only in the process of further development during the second and third years of life does the adult's verbal instruction, further supplemented by the participation of the child's own speech, become a factor steadily directing his attention. However, this stable influence of the verbal instruction directing the child's attention is formed during his own vigorous activity. Therefore, in order to organize his steady attention, the child must not only listen to the adult's verbal instructions, but also practically single out the necessary signs himself, fixing them in his practical action.
This fact has been shown by many Soviet psychologists. So, in experiments A. G. Ruzskoy children of early preschool age were offered a verbal instruction requiring them to react with movement when a triangle appeared and to refrain from reacting when a square appeared. At first, the child who mastered this task made many mistakes in reacting to the sign of "angularity" present in both figures; only after the children of primary preschool age practically got acquainted with these figures, manipulated them and "beat" them, did the reactions to the figures acquire a selective character, and the children began, according to the instructions, to respond with movement only to the appearance of a square, refraining from movement when a triangle appeared. At the next stage, in 4–5-year-old children, the practical identification of the signs of figures could be replaced by a detailed verbal explanation (“here is a window, when it appears, you need to press it, and this is a cap, you don’t need to press it”), after such a detailed explanation, speech the instruction began to steadily direct attention, acquiring a strong regulatory influence.
Similar facts were obtained in experiments V. Ya. Vasilevskaya. In them, the children were given a series of pictures, each depicting a situation in which the dog participated. It was proposed to select paintings where “a dog takes care of its puppies”, or paintings where “a dog serves a person”. Such instruction had no guiding influence on the behavior of two-year-old children. The picture excited a stream of associations in them, the children simply began to tell everything that they had seen before. In children aged 2.5–3 years, selective attention to this task could be ensured only if the child was allowed to practically reproduce the depicted situation by repeating the task. For children aged 3.5–4 years, sustained attention to the fulfillment of the required task was possible only with a loud repetition of the task and a detailed analysis of the situation, and only a child aged 4.5–5 years was able to steadily direct his activity with instructions, while maintaining a selective direction of attention to those signs that were indicated in it.
The development of voluntary attention in childhood was traced back in the early experiments of L. S. Vygotsky, and then A. N. Leontiev, who showed that at further stages of development one can observe the above-described path of forming voluntary attention by relying on deployed external aids. with their subsequent reduction and a gradual transition to higher forms of a folded internal organization of attention.
In the experiments of L. S. Vygotsky, a nut was hidden in some jars, and the child had to get it; for orientation, small gray pieces of paper were attached to the banks in which the nut was hidden. Usually a child of 3-4 years old did not pay attention to them and did not selectively select the necessary jars, however, after the nut was placed in the jars before his eyes and he was pointed to a gray piece of paper, it acquired the character of a sign that speaks of a hidden goal and directed the child's attention . In older children, the pointing gesture was replaced by a word, the child began to independently use the pointing sign, relying on which he could organize his attention.
Similar facts were observed by A. N. Leontiev, when he offered children to complete the difficult task of such a game: “Don’t say yes or no, don’t take black, don’t take white,” to which an even more difficult condition was attached, forbidding the name of the same color to be repeated twice. Such a task turned out to be inaccessible even to children of school age, and a child of early school age mastered it only by laying aside the corresponding colored cards and maintained his selective attention with the help of external mediated supports. A child of senior school age ceased to feel the need for external supports and was able to organize his selective attention. At first, by external detailed pronunciation of both instructions and further “forbidden” answers, and only at the very last stages was he limited to internal pronunciation (mental imprinting) of the conditions that guide his electoral activity.
The foregoing allows us to conclude that arbitrary knowledge, which in classical psychology was considered the primary, further irreducible manifestation of "free will" or the main quality of the "human spirit", is in fact the product of the most complex development. The sources of this development are the forms of communication between the child and the adult, and the main factor that ensures the formation of voluntary attention is speech, which is first supported by the child's extensive practical activity, and then gradually decreases and acquires the character of an internal action that mediates the child's behavior and ensures the regulation and control of his behavior. The formation of voluntary attention opens up ways to understand the internal mechanisms of this most complex form of organization of a person's conscious activity, which plays a decisive role in his entire mental life.
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