Since the 1920s The cultural revolution began to be called the “third front” along with industrialization (“first front”) and collectivization (“second front”). The goal of the cultural revolution was considered to be the formation of a new person, a new type of personality.

The main trends in cultural development during this period were the following.
1. Complete nationalization of the cultural sphere. Everything in this area was financed, controlled and directed by the state. The most important tool of control was censorship. During the first five-year plan, free compulsory primary education was introduced. In the second five-year plan, incomplete (seven-year) secondary education was introduced in cities, and then in rural areas. A unified labor comprehensive polytechnic school has emerged in the country. By the mid-30s. In institutions of public education, strict internal regulations were established, the educational process was clearly organized, uniform textbooks, exams, matriculation certificates, diplomas, etc. were introduced.

2. The politicization and ideologization of cultural life consisted of its subordination to the ideological control of the All-Union Communist Party (Bolsheviks). In literature and art, after creative pluralism and the struggle of various trends in the 1920s and early 1930s. The ideological and creative platform of socialist realism began to be imposed on the artistic intelligentsia. Formalists, modernists and other movements were persecuted and forced out of artistic life. Great value was attached to the system of political education, through which the spread of Marxist-Leninist ideology, and in fact, Stalinism, took place.

3. The democratization of culture took place under the slogans “Culture to the masses!”, “Art belongs to the people,” etc. The works of recognized Russian and Russian classics were published in mass editions in the country. foreign literature. In the capital's theaters, seats were reserved for workers at industrial enterprises (“work strip”). Universities, theaters, and sports facilities were opened in regional centers, Central Asia, and the Caucasus. By the mid-1930s. illiteracy of the population aged 9 to 60 years was eliminated in the country. On-the-job education (evening, correspondence, courses, clubs, etc.) has become widespread.
In connection with the adoption of the Constitution of the USSR on December 5, 1936, Stalin concluded that socialism had basically won in the USSR.

At the end of the 1930s. there have been changes in foreign policy of the country. Soviet-German treaties were concluded in 1939, according to which Western Ukraine and Western Belarus were later included in the USSR, and in 1940 - the Baltic countries, Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina. As a result of the Soviet-Finnish war started by the USSR (November 30, 1939 - March 12, 1940), which dealt a strong blow to the international authority of the country, the Karelian Isthmus and others were transferred to the USSR.

On June 22, 1941, Germany, violating treaties, attacked Soviet Union, which became the beginning of the Great Patriotic War (1941-1945). The Great Patriotic War, having passed through 4 major stages in its development - initial (June 22, 1941 - November 18, 1942); radical fracture (November 19, 1942 - 1943); liberation of the USSR and the defeat of Nazi Germany (1944 - May 9, 1945); Soviet-Japanese war(August 9 - September 2, 1945, became a severe test for the Soviet multinational state, its socio-political system and armed forces.

With the end of World War II, the sharp turn from cooperation to confrontation made in the foreign policy of the recent allies immediately affected both the foreign and domestic policies of the Soviet state. Hopes for comprehensive post-war cooperation between the countries of the anti-Hitler coalition collapsed, the world divided " iron curtain", entered the era of " cold war", which, either subsiding or intensifying, lasted for about half a century (1946 - 1991).

With the death of V.I. Stalin, a new stage in the life of the country begins, associated with the decisions of the 20th Congress of the CPSU (1956), liberalization political life country, "thaw". Certain successes were achieved in science and technology: the world's first nuclear power plant was created (1954), the first Earth satellite was launched (1957), the first spacecraft with cosmonaut Yu.A. Gagarin (April 12, 1961) ; international relations of the USSR expanded, the threat decreased nuclear war(Treaty Banning nuclear weapons, 1963, etc.).

1970s in the life of the country can be characterized by such a concept as “stagnation”, associated with the name of the General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee L.I. Brezhnev. Since 1985 M.S. Gorbachev and his supporters began the policy of perestroika, the political activity of the people increased sharply, and mass, including national, movements and organizations were formed. Attempts to reform the Soviet system led to a deepening of the crisis in the country; a coup attempt was made (August 1991), which failed.

In December 1991, Belarus, Russia and Ukraine stated the demise of the USSR and signed the Agreement on the Creation of the Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS) (December 8, 1991). On December 21, 1991, Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Ukraine declared their commitment to the goals and principles of the Agreement on the Creation of the CIS in the Declaration.

The first Russian president B.N. Yeltsin was in office from July 10, 1991 to December 31, 1999 The main feature of Russia's socio-economic development in the 1990s was economic reform, which ensured the country's transition from a planned economy to a market economy, from socialism to capitalism.

By the end of the 1990s. a radical economic reform was carried out, the components of which were: freedom of prices, freedom of trade, privatization (denationalization, denationalization) of state property and, thus, a multi-structured economy emerged in the country.

In the still short history of the modern multi-party system, several stages can be roughly distinguished. First stage covers time from the late 1980s. until 1991. It is characterized by the emergence of the first alternative political associations: from informal groups to mass parties and associations. Perestroika, glasnost, democratization of the political system and the possibility of holding alternative elections in the second half of the 1980s. led to the emergence of many politicized groups.

The relative legalization of alternative socio-political structures occurred during the elections to the First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR in the spring of 1989. Second the relatively short stage covers the period from the collapse of the USSR to 1993. The main topic of socio-political discourse at this time moves from the struggle against the Communist Party to the problem of choosing a specific socio-economic model.

Third stage Russian partogenesis covers a ten-year period: from the end of 1993 to 2003. It is marked by the implementation of electoral reform (September-November 1993) and the introduction of the so-called “mixed unrelated” (majority-proportional) electoral formula. New electoral legislation was included by B.N. Yeltsin in the famous Decree No. 1400 of September 21, 1993 “On phased constitutional reform in the Russian Federation.”

The period following the elections to the State Duma of the first convocation can be characterized as the time relative stabilization party system, when the political arena was steadily dominated by 4-5 associations.

Fourth stage in the history of the new Russian multi-party system, it dates back to the beginning of the IV Duma (2003) and continues to this day. Since the beginning of the 2000s. The legal foundations of the modern Russian multi-party system are changing radically, and party building itself is turning into an important factor in state policy. Rising legal status parties as a special subject political process, their government funding was introduced for the first time. In 2005, as a result of the adoption of the new Federal Law “On Elections of Deputies State Duma» a transition to a proportional system was carried out, which gave parties the exclusive privilege of nominating candidates to the lower house of parliament. At the same time, the state tightened the criteria for “party selection”: the electoral threshold was raised to 7% (in 2005), electoral blocs were prohibited during the period of preparation for elections, requirements for the minimum number of parties were increased and required quantity regional branches. The consequence of this was a sharp reduction in the number political parties RF.

An important feature of the modern Russian party system has become the dominance of the so-called “party in power” represented by “ United Russia" Other parties found themselves relegated to the periphery of political life. On March 26, 2000, early elections of the President of the Russian Federation took place, at which V.V. was elected. Putin, who held this position until May 7, 2008. “Strengthening points” of a new stage of state development and consolidation Russian society market relations, patriotism, and social solidarity were named. The result of socio-economic reforms of the 90s was the development of a market economy in Russia, the beginning of the country’s integration into the world market, but “shock” therapy had negative consequences: impoverishment of vast masses of the population, inflation, gap in income and consumption. The emergence of a market economy changed the social conditions of life and value orientations of people.

With the election of V.V. as president of the country in 2000. Putin marked the beginning of Russia's recovery from the protracted crisis. The priority areas were: strengthening power in the country, restoring the territorial integrity of Russia, strengthening its position in the international arena.

Culture of Russian abroad

Cultural life in the USSR in the 1920–1930s.

In the culture of the 1920–1930s. Three directions can be distinguished:

1. Official culture supported by the Soviet state.

2. Unofficial culture persecuted by the Bolsheviks.

3. Culture of Russian abroad (emigrant).

Cultural Revolution – changes in the spiritual life of society carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, the creation of socialist culture. The term “cultural revolution” was introduced by V.I. Lenin in 1923. in the work “On Cooperation”.

Goals of the Cultural Revolution.

1. Re-education of the masses - the establishment of Marxist-Leninist, communist ideology as a state ideology.

2. Creation of a “proletarian culture”, oriented towards the lower strata of society, based on communist education.

3. “Communization” and “Sovietization” of mass consciousness through the Bolshevik ideologization of culture.

4. Elimination of illiteracy, development of education, dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge.

5. Break with the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage.

6. Creation and education of a new Soviet intelligentsia.

The beginning of the eradication of illiteracy. Having come to power, the Bolsheviks were faced with the problem of the low cultural level of the population. Population census 1920 ᴦ. showed that 50 million people in the country are illiterate (75% of the population). In 1919 ᴦ. the decree of the Council of People's Commissars was adopted On the elimination of illiteracyʼʼ. In 1923 ᴦ. the society ʼʼ was founded Down with illiteracyʼʼ headed by the Chairman of the All-Russian Central Executive Committee M.I. Kalinin. Thousands of reading huts opened, where adults and children studied. According to the 1926 census. Literacy of the population was 51%. New clubs, libraries, museums, and theaters opened.

Science. The authorities sought to use the technical intelligentsia to strengthen economic potential Soviet state. Under the guidance of an academician THEM. Gubkina the study of the Kursk magnetic anomaly and oil exploration between the Volga and the Urals were carried out. Academician A.E. Fersman Conducted geological surveys in the Urals and the Far East. Discoveries in the field of space exploration theory and rocket technology were made by K.E. Tsiolkovsky And F. Zánder. S.V. Lebedev developed a method for producing synthetic rubber. The founder of aircraft manufacturing studied the theory of aviation NOT. Zhukovsky. In 1929 ᴦ. The All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after. V.I. Lenin (VASKhNIL, President – N.I. Vavilov).

The attitude of the authorities towards the humanitarian intelligentsia. The authorities limited the ability of the humanitarian intelligentsia to participate in political life and influence public consciousness. In 1921 ᴦ. The autonomy of higher education institutions was abolished. Professors and teachers who did not share communist beliefs were fired.

In 1921 ᴦ. GPU employee I'M WITH. Agranov fabricated the case about the “Petrograd Combat Organization”. Its participants were a group of scientists and cultural figures, incl. professor V.N. Tagantsev and poet N.S. Gumilyov. 61 people were shot, incl. Gumilev.

In 1922 ᴦ. a special censorship committee was created - Glavlit, who exercised control over “hostile attacks” against the policies of the ruling party. Next created Glavrepetkom– committee for control of theater repertoires.

IN 1922 ᴦ. on the initiative of V.I. Lenin and L.D. Trotsky on two “philosophical ships” over 160 opposition-minded prominent scientists and cultural figures - philosophers - were expelled from the country N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, N.O. Lossky, S.L. Frank, I.A. Ilyin, L.P. Karsavin etc.
Posted on ref.rf
Was expelled P.A. Sorokin(he studied in the Ivanovo region, and later became a major sociologist in the USA).

In 1923 ᴦ. under the leadership N. K. Krupskaya libraries were cleaned of “anti-Soviet and anti-fiction books”. They even included the works of the ancient philosopher Plato and L.N. Tolstoy. K ser.
Posted on ref.rf
1920s. Private book publishing houses and magazines were closed.

Graduate School. Preparation of the new intelligentsia. The CPSU(b) set a course for the formation of a new intelligentsia, unconditionally loyal to the regime. “It is extremely important for us that the intelligentsia be trained ideologically,” stated N.I. Bukharin. – And we will churn out the intelligentsia, produce it, like in a factory. In 1918 ᴦ. University entrance exams and tuition fees were cancelled. New institutes and universities opened (by 1927 – 148, in pre-revolutionary times – 95). For example, in 1918 ᴦ. A polytechnic institute was opened in Ivanovo-Voznesensk. Since 1919 ᴦ. Work faculties were created in universities ( workers' faculties) to prepare for training in higher school worker and peasant youth who did not have a secondary education. By 1925 ᴦ. graduates of workers' faculties made up half of the students. For people from the bourgeois-noble and intelligentsia “socially alien” strata, access to higher education was difficult.

School system 1920s. The three-tier structure of medium-sized educational institutions(classical gymnasium - real school - commercial school) and was replaced by “polytechnic and labor” high school. The following were removed from the public education system: school subjects like logic, theology, Latin and Greek languages and other humanitarian subjects.

The school became unified and accessible to all. It consisted of 2 stages (1st stage - four years, 2nd - five years). Factory apprenticeship schools (FZU) and working youth schools (WYS) were engaged in training workers, and administrative and technical personnel were trained in technical schools. School programs were focused on communist education. Instead of history, social studies was taught.

State and church in the 1920s. In 1917 ᴦ. the patriarchate was restored. In 1921–1922. Under the pretext of fighting hunger, the Bolsheviks began to confiscate church valuables. In ᴦ. Shuya parishioners who tried to prevent the seizure were shot church values. As part of the policy of “militant atheism,” churches were closed and icons were burned. In 1922 ᴦ. in Moscow and Petrograd, trials were organized against church ministers, some of them were sentenced to death penalty on charges of counter-revolutionary activities. A struggle arose between the “old churchmen” (patriarch Tikhon) and ʼʼrenovationistsʼʼ (Metropolitan A.I. Vvedensky). Patriarch Tikhon was arrested and soon died, the patriarchate was abolished. In 1925 ᴦ. Metropolitan became locum tenens of the patriarchal throne Peter, but in December 1925 ᴦ. he was arrested and deported. His successor, Metropolitan Sergius and 8 bishops in 1927. signed an appeal in which they obliged priests who did not recognize Soviet power to withdraw from church affairs. The Metropolitan opposed this Joseph. Many priests were exiled to Solovki. Representatives of other religions were also persecuted.

Literature and art in the 1920s. Writers and poets of the “Silver Age” continued to publish their works ( A.A. Akhmatova, A. Bely, V.Ya. Bryusov etc.) Directors worked in theaters E.B. Vakhtangov, K.S. Stanislavsky, V.I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, actress M.N. Ermolova. Exhibitions were organized by followers of the “World of Art”, “Jack of Diamonds”, “Blue Rose” and other associations of artists ( P.P. Konchalovsky, A.V. Lentulov, R.R. Falk etc. . ). The revolution gave new impetus to creativity V.V. Mayakovsky, A.A. Blok, S.A. Yesenina. Representatives of left-modernist movements - futurism, cubism, constructivism - showed great activity in painting, theater, architecture ( V.E. Meyerhold, V.E. Tatlin etc.).

Many new literary groups and organizations are emerging:

Group Serapion brothersʼʼ ( M. M. Zoshchenko, V. A. Kaverin, K. A. Fedin etc.) was looking for new artistic forms of reflecting the post-revolutionary life of the country;

Group Passʼʼ ( MM. Prishvin, V.P. Kataev etc.) advocated for the preservation of the continuity and traditions of Russian literature.

Literary and artistic associations of proletarian-Bolshevik communist orientation arose:

-Proletkult(1917–1932 ᴦ.) - formed a new proletarian socialist culture ( A.A. Bogdanov, P.I. Lebedev-Polyansky, Demyan Bedny);

Literary group ʼʼ Forgeʼʼ (1920–1931), joined RAPP;

-Russian Association of Proletarian Writers(RAPP), (1925–1932) using the slogan “partisanship of literature,” fought with other groups. Published a magazine ʼʼOn dutyʼʼ;

LEF Group ʼʼ Left Arts Frontʼʼ (1922–1929) – poets V.V. Mayakovsky, N.N. Aseev and others worked taking into account the requirements of Proletkult, published the magazine ʼʼLEFʼʼ.

These groups harassed non-party cultural figures, calling them “internal emigrants” for avoiding singing the “heroics of revolutionary achievements.” “Fellow travelers” were also criticized - writers who supported Soviet power, but allowed “hesitation” ( MM. Zoshchenko, A.N. Tolstoy, V.A. Kaverin, E.G. Bagritsky, M.M. Prishvin etc.).

Cultural Revolution" in the 1920s. - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Cultural Revolution" in the 1920s. 2017, 2018.

Civil War 1917-1922 and foreign intervention in Russia

Reasons for the revolution:

· dispersal of the Constituent Assembly by the Bolsheviks;

· the desire of the Bolsheviks who received power to retain it by any means;

· the willingness of all participants to use violence as a way to resolve the conflict;

· signing of the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty with Germany in March 1918;

· the Bolsheviks' solution to the most pressing agrarian issue contrary to the interests of large landowners;

· nationalization of real estate, banks, means of production;

· the activities of food detachments in villages, which led to aggravation of relations between the new government and the peasantry.

Intervention - Aggressive intervention by one or more states, advantage armed, for internal affairs of some kind. countries.

Scientists distinguish 3 stages of the civil war. The first stage lasted from October 1917 to November 1918. This was the time when the Bolsheviks came to power. Since October 1917, isolated armed clashes gradually turned into full-scale military operations. It is characteristic that beginning of the civil war 1917 – 1922, unfolded in the background larger military conflict - First world y. This was the main reason for the subsequent intervention of the Entente. It should be noted that each of the Entente countries had its own reasons for participating in the intervention(). Thus, Türkiye wanted to establish itself in Transcaucasia, France wanted to extend its influence to the north of the Black Sea region, Germany wanted to establish itself in the Kola Peninsula, Japan was interested in Siberian territories. The goal of England and the United States was both to expand their own spheres of influence and to prevent the strengthening of Germany.

The second stage dates from November 1918 – March 1920. It was at this time that the decisive events of the civil war took place. In connection with the cessation of hostilities on the fronts of the First World War and the defeat of Germany, gradually fighting on the territory of Russia have lost intensity. But, at the same time, a turning point came in favor of the Bolsheviks, who controlled most of the country.

Final stage in the chronology of the civil war lasted from March 1920 to October 1922. Military operations of this period were carried out mainly on the outskirts of Russia (Soviet-Polish War, military clashes on Far East). It is worth noting that there are other, more detailed, options for periodizing the civil war.

The end of the civil war was marked by the victory of the Bolsheviks. Historians call its most important reason the broad support of the masses. The development of the situation was also seriously influenced by the fact that, weakened by the First World War, the Entente countries were unable to coordinate their actions and strike at the territory of the former Russian Empire with all their might.

War communism

War communism (policy of war communism) – name domestic policy Soviet Russia, carried out during the Civil War of 1918-1921.

The essence of war communism was to prepare the country for a new, communist society, which the new authorities were oriented towards. War communism was characterized by the following features:

· extreme degree of centralization of management of the entire economy;

· nationalization of industry (from small to large);

· ban on private trade and curtailment of commodity-money relations;

· state monopolization of many industries agriculture;

· militarization of labor (orientation towards the military industry);

· total equalization, when everyone received an equal amount of benefits and goods.

It was on the basis of these principles that it was planned to build a new state, where there are no rich and poor, where everyone is equal and everyone receives exactly what is necessary for a normal life.

Question 41. Political development USSR in 1920-1930.

In the period from 1928 to 1937. A totalitarian state was finally formed in the USSR.

Market mechanisms were laid government regulation, and in all spheres of social life a regime of total control was established, exercised by the party-state apparatus.

Other signs of a totalitarian system were also observed:

1) mono-party system;

2) absence of opposition;

3) merging of the state and party apparatus;

4) the actual elimination of the separation of powers;

5) destruction of political and civil freedoms;

6) unification public life;

7) cult of the country's leader;

8) control over society with the help of all-encompassing mass public organizations.

At the top of the political pyramid was general secretary VKP(b) I.V. Stalin.

By the beginning of the 1930s. he managed to win the internal party struggle for power that unfolded after the death of V.I. Lenin between the leading party leaders (L.D. Trotsky, L.B. Kamenev, G.E. Zinoviev, N.I. Bukharin). and established a regime of personal dictatorship in the USSR. The main structures of this political system were:

1) party;

2) management of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks;

3) Politburo;

4) organs state security, operating under the direct leadership of I.V. Stalin.

Mass repressions as one of the main instruments of the regime pursued several goals:

1) eliminating opponents of Stalin’s methods of building socialism;

2) destruction of the free-thinking part of the nation;

3) keeping the party and state machinery in constant tension.

Strictly regulating not only the behavior, but also the thinking of each of its members, ideologized official organizations were called upon to educate a person from childhood in the spirit of the norms of communist morality.

In fact, each of them was just one or another modification of state ideology for different social groups. Thus, the most privileged and honorable was membership in the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks (about 2 million people) and the Soviets (about 3.6 million deputies and activists). For young people there was the Komsomol (Komsomol) and the Pioneer organization. For workers and employees there were trade unions, and for the intelligentsia there were unions depending on the type of activity.

Logical continuation The political course of the party was the adoption on December 5, 1936 at the VIII All-Union Extraordinary Congress of Soviets of the new Constitution of the USSR. It established the creation of two forms of ownership:

1) state;

2) collective farm-cooperative.

System state power has also undergone changes:

1) the supreme body remained the Supreme Council of the USSR;

2) during the breaks between its sessions, the Presidium of the Supreme Council had power.

Question 42. “Cultural revolution” in the USSR (1920-30s)

In the culture of the 1920s–1930s. Three directions can be distinguished:

1. Official culture supported by the Soviet state.

2. Unofficial culture persecuted by the Bolsheviks.

3. Culture of Russian abroad (emigrant).

Cultural Revolution – changes in the spiritual life of society carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, the creation of socialist culture. The term “cultural revolution” was introduced by V.I. Lenin in 1923 in his work “On Cooperation”.

Goals of the Cultural Revolution.

1. Re-education of the masses - the establishment of Marxist-Leninist, communist ideology as a state ideology.

2. Creation of a “proletarian culture” focused on the lower strata of society, based on communist education.

3. “Communization” and “Sovietization” of mass consciousness through the Bolshevik ideologization of culture.

4. Elimination of illiteracy, development of education, dissemination of scientific and technical knowledge.

5. Break with the pre-revolutionary cultural heritage.

6. Creation and education of a new Soviet intelligentsia.

The main goal of the cultural transformations carried out by the Bolsheviks in the 1920s and 1930s was the subordination of science and art to Marxist ideology.

A big deal for Russia was the elimination of illiteracy (educational education). Results of the cultural revolution in the USSR

The successes of the Cultural Revolution include an increase in the literacy rate to 87.4% of the population (according to the 1939 census), the creation of a wide system of secondary schools, and a significant development of science and art.

1. Philosophy. No less furious was the “offensive” of Bolshevism on the “philosophical front.” In the fall of 1922, dozens of scientists and professors were expelled from Soviet Russia to Germany without trial or investigation. Among them are famous philosophers N.A. Berdyaev, S.N. Bulgakov, B.P. Vysheslavtsev, I.A. Ilyin, S.L. Frank, N.O. Lossky, L.P. Karsavin, sociologist P. A. Sorokin, historian A. A. Kizevetter and many others - about 160 people in total.

The authorities considered that their activities were nothing more than “a literary cover for a White Guard organization.” Lenin personally selected candidates for deportation. In a sense, this was a humane step: after all, they remained alive and could create, albeit in a foreign land.

Stalin did not leave his ideological opponents even this chance. In the 30s these were “mechanists” (I. A. Borichevsky, A. I. Varyash, V. N. Sarabyanov, A. K. Timiryazev) and “dialectists” led by A. M. Deborin. Both of them tried to develop Marxism in relation to the ideology of Bolshevism.

The “mechanists”, who were inclined towards positivism, quoted Marx: “Where speculation stops... real positive science begins... Phrases about consciousness disappear, their place must be taken by real knowledge. When they begin to depict reality, it loses its essence. independent philosophy." They believed that the denial of philosophy was quite adequate to the mindset of the founder of Marxism.

Their opponents, the “dialecticians,” in turn, found support for their philosophical research in Engels’ thesis that “of all previous philosophy, the doctrine of thinking and its laws still preserves independent existence - formal logic and dialectics."

None of these approaches suited Stalin. Accepting the position of the “mechanists” meant that Bolshevism generally rejected philosophy, and therefore left the field of ideological struggle. Essentially the same result was achieved by the line of “dialecticians,” who reduced philosophy to epistemology and the theory of knowledge, that is, separated it from politics. Therefore, Stalin ordered not only to “stop the mechanics,” but also to “dig up the dung” of the Deborin group. The resolution of the Central Committee of the All-Union Communist Party of Bolsheviks “On the journal “Under the Banner of Marxism”” dated January 25, 1931 officially legalized the “struggle on two fronts”: few participants in the philosophical discussion managed to survive.

In order to suppress any free thinking in the philosophical sphere, Stalin in 1938 approved his own scheme of dialectical and historical materialism, which became the cornerstone of party ideology for decades.

2. The question of the intelligentsia. In order to protect Marxism from ideological criticism in the early 20s. were humanities faculties in Russian universities were also liquidated. They were rediscovered only in 1934. Over the past time, a truly catastrophic situation has developed in the historical and philological sciences:

• the training of highly qualified university personnel was eliminated,
• specializations in vocabulary, phonetics, morphology, syntax of the Russian language, Russian literature, folklore are closed,
• not a single fundamental textbook on the history of Russian and Soviet literature has appeared.

A negative attitude towards the past led to distortion and schematism in the coverage of the Russian historical process.

“In their present form,” it was noted even in official documents, “our state universities are not only not genuine socialist centers of science, they often stand significantly lower than ordinary institutions and Western European and American universities.”

Instead of the abolished faculties, numerous “common universities” and “party schools” are created, which, in accordance with the program of the Bolshevik authorities, begin to “develop”, “churn out like in a factory” new cadres of the socialist intelligentsia, so that they will be “ trained ideologically in a certain manner". The intellectuals of the old, pre-revolutionary formation are declared "a log, an obstacle to development for the simple reason that they did not understand the entire historical scale of the events that took place."

Of course, the government could not do without the help of intellectual specialists. They were needed in the army, in production, in management and education. But even the most loyal of them were constantly under threat of reprisals, because, in spite of everything, they confessed " quite a bastard", who did not believe in any construction of socialism and only dreamed of how to lower the Bolsheviks "on democratic-capitalist rails."

Such suspicions generally had their basis. And the point, of course, is not the “counter-revolutionary” nature of the intelligentsia. Possessing scientific knowledge, she objectively recognized the futility of the “socialist choice” and all her professional activity tried to weaken the destructive actions of the Bolshevik utopia.

In fact, this placed her outside the ranks of the “builders of communism.” In fact, the Russian intelligentsia gradually prepared the events of 1991, which led to the collapse of the USSR.

3. Science. Distrust of the intelligentsia also had a negative impact on the approach to science. The ideologists of Bolshevism, having believed in the absolute truth of materialism, did not even allow the idea that science could develop independently of any philosophical orientation. For them there were only two evaluation criteria scientific knowledge -

1. materialistic and
2. idealistic.

A scientist can easily deviate into idealism (or into “clergy,” as Lenin said) if he does not consciously take the position of materialism. The party's task is to help him become a real materialist; At the same time, the scientific side of the matter was completely ignored.

Russian scientists fled from such party tutelage without looking back. The Russian Scientific Center in Belgrade established the presence of about 500 scientists in emigration in 1930, including more than 150 former professors of Russian universities and higher schools.

Among them were prominent figures:

• microbiologist S. N. Vinogradsky, who lived in France from 1922 and for thirty years headed the agrobacteriological laboratory at the Pasteur Institute there;
• paleoecologist, member of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences N. I. Andrusov;
• soil scientist V.K. Agafonov, author of works on the study of soils and vegetation of France, Manchuria and Northeast China;
• K. N. Davydov, author of major works on comparative embryology, etc.

An irreparable loss for Russia was the departure abroad of scientists in the field of exact and technical sciences:

• chemists V. N. Ipatiev, A. E. Chichibabin and A. A. Titov,
• aircraft designer I. I. Sikorsky, shipbuilder V. I. Yurkevich,
• astronomer N.M. Steadily,
• specialist in electronic physics, one of the creators of television V.K. Zvorykin,
• the greatest mechanical scientist S.P. Timoshenko and others.

The authorities periodically organized “purges” of the scientific ranks. The victims of party vigilance were mostly representatives of the humanities and sciences about “living things” - biology, physiology, psychology, etc. For the most part, ignorant, divorced from the real process of development of scientific knowledge, the Bolsheviks were afraid of any, even the slightest change in that " picture of the world,” which they received from Engels and Lenin. It seemed to them that everything necessary to preserve their ideology was open and researched, and everything new was only soil for anti-party “deviations” and delusions. And, of course, there could be no talk of bringing this new thing closer to the philosophy of Marxism.

It is enough to dwell on two points - planting

• "Pavlovian" in physiology and
• "Lysenkoism" in agrobiological science.

The pre-war years were marked by an unprecedented boom in the field of studying problems of physiology and psychology. Along with the Pavlovian school, which was considered a stronghold of materialism, a number of new directions are developing, such as the behaviorism of V. M. Borovsky, the “cultural” psychology of L. S. Vygotsky and A. R. Luria, “reactology” of K. N. Kornilov, etc. Supporters of traditional physiology saw in this an increase in resistance to the ideology of Marxism-Leninism and demanded the “defeat of bourgeois-idealistic theories.”

War 1941-1945 temporarily eased the tension in physiological science, but with the advent of peaceful days everything resumed with the same force.

In 1948, a special session of the All-Union Academy of Agricultural Sciences named after. V.I. Lenin (VASKhNIL), in which the teachings of I.P. Pavlov are proclaimed the only reliable counterbalance to all Western science, “poisoned by ideology and politics alien to the Soviet people.” In addition, it is fundamentally opposed to the entire previous history of physiology and psychology. “We must admit,” it was noted in the materials of the session, “that the point of view that Pavlov allegedly gave only an addition to physiology or that he created another chapter of this science is incorrect.

It would be more correct if we divide all physiology into two stages - the pre-Pavlovian stage and the Pavlovian stage. The history of psychology can be divided in the same way. Pre-Pavlovian psychology is built on an idealistic worldview, while Pavlovian psychology is essentially materialistic. This division into stages also applies to such sciences as morphology, especially morphology nervous system" .

It is unlikely that the great physiologist himself would agree with such an assessment of his teaching. He understood perfectly well that even with the deepest insights into human nature, there always remain “physiological details that require further explanation of their mechanism.” And it is not a fact that these explanations will be in favor of materialism.

The canonization of “Pavlovism” led to the stagnation of Russian physiology: which at the beginning of its development had two laureates Nobel Prize- Pavlov and Mechnikov himself, since then it has not risen above the average level.

Negative consequences for the development of others biological science in the USSR - geneticists - also had the approval of the “Lysenko regime” in agrobiology.

T. D. Lysenko owed his rise entirely to the support of Stalin: the latter liked the fact that the “vernalizer,” as Lysenko himself called himself, primarily thought in terms of the opposition that existed between “socialist” and “bourgeois” science.

Without verbally rejecting the selection theory of heredity, Lysenko at the same time advocated “the construction of our genetic-selection theory on the basis of materialistic principles of development, truly reflecting... the dialectics of inheritance.” This led to the rejection of the main postulate of scientific genetics, namely the recognition of the transmission of properties or characteristics of an organism from ancestors to descendants.

For Lysenko, the primary factor was the relationship of the organism with the environment. He defined heredity as “the property of a living body to require certain conditions for its life, its development and definitely respond to certain conditions.” This sounded materialistic, but did not stand up to criticism from the point of view of the laws of the creator of genetics - G. Mendel.

And not only Mendel. Lysenko's views contradicted the logic of Darwinism, which combined natural selection with species heredity. Stalin's "vernalizer" stopped only on the first side of the theory of the English naturalist.

Geneticists, united around Academician N.I. Vavilov, who was then the director of the All-Union Institute of Plant Growing, tried to somehow protect their science from Lysenko’s “ignorance,” but in vain. Lysenko was powerful and could do whatever he wanted. As president of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences, he convened a meeting of the Academy's Presidium on May 25, 1939, dedicated to exposing "idealistic geneticists." Vavilov decided to give battle. The scientist’s report praised genetics, emphasizing its kinship with Darwinism and with the entire world of biological science.

Then one of the Lysenkoites asked displeasedly: “Can’t you learn from Marx... Marxism is the only science. After all, Darwinism is only a part, but the real theory of knowledge of the world was given by Marx, Engels, Lenin. And so, when I hear conversations related to Darwinism, and I don’t hear anything about Marxism, then it may turn out that on the one hand everything seems correct, but if you look at it from the other side, it turns out to be completely different.” Lysenkovets hinted that if genetics is connected with Darwinism, then Darwinism should be reconsidered ideologically.

Vavilov opposed such “labeling,” but then Lysenko’s “organizational conclusion” followed: “You do not obey me ideologically, and since you do not obey, VIR (that is, the Vavilov Institute. - A. 3.) does not obey. .. I’m saying now that we need to take some measures, we can’t do this, we can’t continue to work like this.”

Soon the great scientist was arrested and sentenced to death (!). He died in 1941 or 1942 in the Saratov transit prison.

Genetics was finally achieved at the above-mentioned session of the All-Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences in 1948.

4. Courts of honor. The fate of genetics and physiology was shared by other sciences - political economy, linguistics, ergonomics, literary theory, etc. It seemed the authorities took revenge on science for their lack of education, isolation from world culture, instilling “unanimity” and “simplification”.

Everyone had to be only “Marxist-Leninists”;
any other ideological position was either subsumed under the “article”,
or was subject to a “court of honor.”

The last innovation appeared in 1947 on the direct orders of Stalin and was intended, in addition to the official courts, to exercise “public” control over the mentality and behavior of the intelligentsia. "Courts of honor" were held in government institutions, institutes, labor collectives. They, according to one of the then party officials, “charged” intellectual workers with “huge Bolshevik passion” and aroused in everyone “zeal, a sincere desire to put an end to the old methods, skills in scientific, journalistic and organizational work.”

This is how “Stalinocracy” was implanted - a system of arbitrariness of the authorities and slavish impotence of society.

The post-war socialist camp was created according to the same scheme, which seemed to be a new step towards building communism - “the bright future of all mankind.” The methods of the “cultural revolution” in the countries of “people's democracy” completely copied the Soviet model.

5. Gulag scientists. But, of course, the Soviet system was not maintained by terror alone. The Bolsheviks strongly supported the development of scientific and technical knowledge and created an extensive system of vocational and technical training.

The slogan “master technology” was one of the main motives of the pre-war five-year plans. Stalin often repeated it. His first speech on this topic was addressed to young people in the spring of 1928, when the industrialization of the country began. “It’s time for the Bolsheviks to become specialists themselves. During the period of reconstruction, technology decides everything,” he said, speaking to business executives on February 4, 1931. The deadline for the implementation of this task was also determined: “In a maximum of ten years, we must cover the distance by which we are behind from the advanced countries of capitalism."

First, the beating of cadres, and then the war, prevented the implementation of this plan. The victory cost tens of millions of victims. The authorities perceived this as an additional argument in favor of the development of new technologies. The method of achieving the goal remained the same - the Gulag method. In the "Enkevedev" camps, closed laboratories and design bureaus are created, which subsequently grow into powerful scientific centers that serve the Soviet military-industrial complex under conditions of secrecy and anonymity.

Many luminaries of official science began their “scientific careers” there - the creators of atomic and hydrogen bombs, specialists in the field of rocketry and astronautics, aircraft designers, military chemists and biologists, i.e. all those who ensured the “competitiveness” of the USSR in the Cold War with world capitalism.

This war was disgracefully lost, and the secret scientific and technical monsters quickly collapsed one after another. Attempts to adapt them to civilian life were unsuccessful.

Thus, even the “outstanding achievements” of Soviet science remained within the circle of party interests. They had virtually no influence on transformation and improvement public relations, culture. The people were and remained poor, production was shackled by outdated technologies and management, education lost touch with every year. general trends development of modern knowledge and increasingly turned into a simple means of ideological education of youth.

6. School. There is no need to talk about the financial situation of the Soviet school. In August 1930, the USSR introduced compulsory primary education for children aged 8-10 years. From the late 40s to the late 50s. a transition to seven-year, or incomplete, secondary education is taking place. In 1958, instead of seven years, universal compulsory eight-year education for youth was introduced. Finally, in the 70s. a program for the transition to complete secondary education is being planned, which will mainly be implemented by 1985.

At the same time, school funding, which was quite satisfactory at first, increasingly shifted to a “residual principle.” So, if before the beginning of the 60s. up to 20% of the state budget was allocated for schools Russian Federation, then then school expenses begin to decline steadily and reach 7.3% in 1975 and 5.2% in 1985. It can be said that the introduction of universal secondary education, in fact, was not ensured by the appropriate financial conditions and material base. The lagging behind of secondary school also affected the quality of training of specialists in universities.

In a word, all political system The USSR, the core of which was the Communist Party, paradoxically, worked for self-destruction. Despite the fact that the Russian people, inspired by the victory over fascism, placed “confidence in the Soviet government,” power has not changed its essence at all. Fearing any manifestation of disloyalty to herself, she again spun the flywheel of repression and persecution. The people could no longer forgive this and, turning away from the regime, left it to its own fate. Time completed the fall of the totalitarian system.

4. “Cultural Revolution” in the USSR

cultural revolution in the USSR - a set of changes in the spiritual life of society carried out in the USSR in the 20-30s. XX century, " component socialist construction, creation of socialist culture." The term “cultural revolution” was introduced by V. I. Lenin in 1923 in his work “On Cooperation”:

“The cultural revolution is ... a whole revolution, a whole period of cultural development of the entire mass of the people”

The Cultural Revolution was aimed at the “re-education” of the masses - at the “communization” and “Sovietization” of mass consciousness, at breaking with the traditions of the historical (pre-revolutionary) cultural heritage through the Bolshevik ideologization of culture. The task of creating a so-called “proletarian culture”, based on Marxist-class ideology, “communist education,” and mass culture aimed at the lower strata of society, came to the fore.

The Cultural Revolution was caused by such transformations in economics and politics as the establishment of the dictatorship of the proletariat, the socialization of the means of production, socialist industrialization and collectivization of agriculture.

The Cultural Revolution, on the one hand, provided for the elimination of illiteracy among workers and peasants, the creation of a socialist system of public education and enlightenment, the formation of a new social stratum - the “socialist intelligentsia”, the restructuring of everyday life, the development of science, literature, and art under party control. On the other hand, in the public education system, the three-tier structure of secondary educational institutions (classical gymnasium - Real school - Commercial school) was eliminated and replaced with a “polytechnic and labor” secondary school. Thus, school subjects such as logic, theology, Latin and Greek, and other humanitarian subjects were removed from the public education system.

As a result of the cultural revolution of the USSR, certain successes were achieved: according to official data from the 1939 census, the literacy rate of the population began to be 70%; in the USSR a first-class secondary school, the number of Soviet intelligentsia reached 14 million people; until the early 1940s. there was a flourishing of science and art, from the 1960s - the dawn of Soviet cosmonautics, top sporting achievements, prosperity of rural industry and much more. In cultural development, according to official state information, the USSR has reached the forefront in the world.

The main task of the Cultural Revolution was ideological propaganda. Cultural transformations were under the control of the Communist Party and the state. In the field of literature and art, in the media the main artistic method became socialist realism.