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CONTENTS Ecology (Stepanovskikh A.S.)

FOREWORD
1. INTRODUCTION. SUBJECT OF ECOLOGY
1.1. BRIEF HISTORY OF ECOLOGY
1.2. CONTENT, SUBJECT AND TASKS OF ECOLOGY
1.3. RELATIONSHIP OF ECOLOGY WITH OTHER BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. ECOLOGY DEPARTMENTS
1.4. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS
2. BIOSPHERE: DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE. LIVING SUBSTANCE
2.1. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE BIOSPHERE
2.2. LIVING SUBSTANCE OF THE BIOSPHERE
2.3. THE LAWS OF BIOGENIC MIGRATION OF ATOMS AND THE INVOLVEMENT OF EVOLUTION, THE LAWS OF ECOLOGY OF B. KOMMONER
3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND GENERAL REGULARITIES OF THEIR EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS
3.1. ENVIRONMENT AND CONDITIONS OF EXISTENCE OF ORGANISMS
3.2. JOINT ACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
4. THE MOST IMPORTANT ABIOTIC FACTORS AND BODIES 'ADAPTATION TO THEM
4.1. RADIATION: LIGHT
4.2. TEMPERATURE
4.3. HUMIDITY
4.4. JOINT ACTION OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY
4.5. ATMOSPHERE
4.6. TOPOGRAPHY
4.7. OTHER PHYSICAL FACTORS
5. BASIC ENVIRONMENTS
5.1. WATER LIFE ENVIRONMENT
5.2. LAND-AIR ENVIRONMENT
5.3. SOIL AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT
5.4. LIVING ORGANISMS AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT
6. BIOTIC FACTORS
6.1. HOMOTYPICAL AND
HETEROTYPE REACTIONS
6.2. ZOOGENIC FACTORS
6.3. PHYTOGENIC FACTORS
6.4. ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS
7. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS
7.1. EXTERNAL RHYTHMS
7.2. INTERNAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, RHYTHMS
7.3. THE BIOLOGICAL CLOCK
7.4. PHOTOPERIODISM
8. LIFE FORMS OF ORGANISMS
8.1. THE CONCEPT OF "LIFE FORM" OF THE BODY
8.2. LIFE FORMS OF PLANTS
8.3. LIFE FORMS OF ANIMALS
9. STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF POPULATIONS
9.1. POPULATION CONCEPT
9.2. SPATIAL UNITS OF POPULATIONS
9.3. NUMBER AND DENSITY OF POPULATIONS
9.4. Fertility and mortality
9.5. AGE STRUCTURE OF THE POPULATION
9.6. GENDER COMPOSITION
9.7. GENETIC PROCESSES IN POPULATIONS
9.8. POPULATION GROWTH AND GROWTH CURVES
10. INSpecies and interspecies relationships in populations, homeostasis and environmental strategies
10.1. INTR-SPECIFIC RELATIONSHIP
10.2. INTERSPECIES RELATIONSHIP
10.3. VARIATIONS IN POPULATION AND HOMEOSTASIS
10.4. ECOLOGICAL POPULATION STRATEGIES
11. BIOCENOSES
11.1. THE CONCEPT OF BIOCENOSIS
11.2. SPECIES STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS
11.3. SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS
11.4. RELATIONSHIP OF ORGANISMS IN BIOCENOSES
11.5. ENVIRONMENTAL NICHES
11.6. ECOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS
11.7. BORDER EFFECT
12. ECOSYSTEMS
12.1. CONCEPT OF ECOSYSTEMS
12.2. CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS
12.3. ZONING OF MACROECOSYSTEMS
12.4. STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEMS
12.5. THE SUN AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY
12.6. CIRCULATIONS OF SUBSTANCES
12.7. ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS
12.8. PRODUCTIVITY OF ECOSYSTEMS
12.9. DYNAMICS OF ECOSYSTEMS
12.10. BIOSPHERE AS A GLOBAL ECOSYSTEM
12.11. HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EVOLUTION OF THE BIOSPHERE
12.12. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BIOSPHERE INTO THE NOOSPHERE - THE SPHERE OF MIND
13. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON NATURE
13.1. CONCEPT OF NATURE, NATURAL RESOURCES
13.2. POPULATION GROWTH
13.3. ANTHROPOGENIC MATERIAL BALANCE
13.4. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON ENERGY FLOWS AND CIRCUITS OF SUBSTANCES
13.5. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS
13.6. ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS
13.7. DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION. TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS
13.8. MAIN SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION
13.9. MAN-GENERAL ACCIDENTS AND NATURAL DISASTERS
13.10. ECOLOGICAL SITUATION
14. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON ATMOSPHERIC AIR
14.1. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE
14.2. SOURCES AND COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTION
14.3. PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION
14.4. AIR POLLUTION MEASURES
15. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE HYDROSPHERE
15.1. BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT HYDROSPHERE
15.2. ROLE OF WATER IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE
15.3. FRESH WATER RESERVES
15.4. USE OF WATER RESOURCES
15.5. SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION
15.6. WATER TREATMENT AND PROTECTION MEASURES
16. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON VEGETATION
16.1. THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE
16.2. HUMAN IMPACT ON VEGETATION
16.3. FOREST IS THE MOST IMPORTANT PLANT RESOURCE
16.4. FOREST AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES
16.5. FOREST AND TOURISM
16.6. VEGETATION CONSERVATION MEASURES
16.7. PROTECTION OF ECONOMICALLY VALUABLE AND RARE PLANT SPECIES
17. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON ANIMALS
17.1. THE IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS IN THE BIOSPHERE AND HUMAN LIFE
17.2. HUMAN EFFECTS ON ANIMALS, CAUSES OF THEIR EXTINCTION
17.3. ANIMAL PROTECTION MEASURES
18. IMPACT
HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES IN NATURE
18.1. AGRICULTURE AS A SOURCE OF FOOD RESOURCES
18.2. INFLUENCE OF HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENTAL EQUILIBRIUM IN NATURE
18.3. ENERGY CONSUMPTION, FUNCTIONING AND BIOPRODUCTIVITY OF AGROECOSYSTEM
18.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS
18.5. LANDSCAPE ORGANIZATION OF AGROECOSYSTEM
18.6. ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS
18.7. ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF AGRICULTURE INTENSIFICATION
18.8. PROBLEM OF LAND PROTECTION
18.9. ALTERNATIVE AGRICULTURE
18.10. LAND RECOVERY
18.11. NATURAL MEADOWS AND PASTURES IN AGROECOSYSTEMS
19. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND PUBLIC HEALTH
19.1. HUMAN ENVIRONMENT
19.2. HUMAN NEEDS
19.3. THE CONCEPT OF "HUMAN HEALTH"
19.4. IMPACT OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL STATE ON HUMAN HEALTH
19.5. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK
20. WAYS TO SOLVE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
20.1. LAWS OF RELATIONSHIP HUMAN-NATURE
20.2. WAYS TO SOLVE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
20.3. THE INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION
20.4. ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND EDUCATION
21. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES
21.1. ENVIRONMENTAL FORECAST AND FORECAST
21.2. MODELING OF NATURAL PROCESSES IN SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS
21.3. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING
21.4. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT
21.5. ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINANTS REGULATION
21.6. ECOLOGICAL CERTIFICATION AND PASSPORTIZATION
21.7. ENVIRONMENTAL ASSESSMENT
TERMS AND CONCEPTS
LITERATURE

A.S. Stepanovskikh GENERAL ECOLOGY Second edition, supplemented and revised Recommended by the Ministry of Education of the Russian Federation as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions in environmental specialties Recommended by the Educational and Methodological Center "Professional Textbook" as a textbook for students of higher educational institutions in environmental specialties Moscow  2015 UDC 574 (075.8) ББК 28.080я73 С79 Reviewers: Dr. S.-kh. Sciences, prof.<...>ISBN 5-238-00854-6 Outlines the main provisions modern ecology, structure and evolution biosphere, the role of living matter in biosphere. <...>Here are the main provisions modern ecology, structure and evolution biosphere, the role of living matter in biosphere, the main environments of life and adaptation of organisms to them are considered, ecology populations, communities and ecosystems, the concept of the noosphere is given, the ecological problems of our time and the ways of their solution are reflected.<...>Brief history ecology Word " ecology"Is derived from the Greek" oikos ", which means home (dwelling, habitat, refuge) and "logos" - science.<...>The victory of evolutionary doctrine in biology thus opened the third stage in stories ecology, which is characterized by a further increase in the number and depth of work on environmental issues.<...>In 1910 at the III Botanical Congress in Brussels ecology plants split into ecology individuals and ecology communities.<...>M.S.Gilyarov At the beginning of the 40s of the XX century, the fourth stage began in stories ecology, a new approach to the study of natural ecosystems is emerging.<...>Tensley is a successful attempt to integrate biocenosis with a biotope at the level of a new functional unit - an ecosystem.<...>N.F. Reimers(1931-1993), Doctor of Biological Sciences, a prominent Russian scientist who made a significant contribution to the development of ecology.<...>N.F. Reimers A world-renowned scientist, Doctor of Physical and Mathematical Sciences, Academician N.N. Moiseev (1917-2000), as a result of many years of research, formed<...>

General_ecology._2nd_ed., _ Revised_and_additional_Tutorial._Grif_MO_RF_Avt._Dog._No_521.pdf

UDC 574 (075.8) BBK 28.080ÿ73 Ñ79 Reviewers: ä-ð ñ.-õ. nauk, pof. Â.Â. Nemchenko (Kurgan Research Institute of Grain Economy of the Russian Academy of Agricultural Sciences); kand. biol. nauk, doc. A.V. Nechaev (Department of Ecology and Plant Protection of the Kurgan Agricultural Academy named after TS Maltsev); Cand. biol. Sciences, Assoc. A.N. Panfilov (Department of Ecology and Plant Protection of the Kurgan Agricultural Academy named after TS Maltsev); ä-ð ñ.-õ. nauk, pof., ok. MANEB A.Ï. Goloshchapov (Kurgan State University); ä-ð ñ.-õ. nauk, pof., ref. Scientist of the Russian Federation A.A. Chulkina (Head of the Department of Plant Protection Systems and Epiphytothiology, Novosibirsk State Agrarian University) Editor-in-Chief of the publishing house, Candidate of Legal Sciences, Doctor of Economics N.D. Eriashvili Stepanovskikh A.S. Ñ79 2015. General ecology: Textbook for universities. / A.S. Stepanovskikh. - 2nd ed., Add. and per. - Ì.: ÞÍÈÒÈ-ÄÀÍÀ, - 687 s. ISBN 5-238-00854-6 The main provisions of modern ecology, the structure and evolution of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere are presented. The main environments of life and the adaptation of organisms to them, the ecology of populations, communities and ecosystems are considered, the concept of the noosphere is given, environmental problems of our time and the ways of their solution are highlighted. For university students enrolled in environmental specialties and teachers. It can be useful for students of biological specialties of universities, teachers of secondary and secondary specialized educational institutions, leaders and specialists in ecology. BBK 28.080ÿ73 ISBN 5-238-00854-6 © À.Ñ. Stepanovskikh, 2000, 2005 © ÞÍÈÒÈ-ÄÀÍÀ PUBLISHING, 2000, 2005 Reproduction of the entire book or any part of it by any means or in any form, including on the Internet, is prohibited without the written permission of the publisher

Page 3

CONTENTS About the author ............................................... ............................................ 3 FOREWORD .... .................................................. .......................... 4 1. ABOUT: SUBJECT ÝÊÎËÎÃÈÈ ................. ......................... 5 1.1. A brief history of ecology ............................................... .......... 5 1.2. Content, subject and tasks of ecology .............................. 24 1.3. The relationship of ecology with other biological sciences. ECOLOGY UNITS ................................................ ............ 26 1.4. Methods of environmental research ................................... 29 2. BIOSPHERE: DEFINITION, STRUCTURE AND ESSENCE .. .................................................. 33 2.1. Definition and structure of the biosphere ...................................... 33 2.2. Living matter of the biosphere ............................................... ...... 48 2.3. Evolution of the biosphere ................................................ ................ 56 2.4. Disasters in the history of the biosphere ........................................... 81 2.5. The laws of biogenic migration of atoms and the irreversibility of evolution, the "law" of ecology. Computer .......................... 86 ECOLOGY OF SPECIALS. ENVIRONMENT AND EXISTENCE CONDITIONS OF ORGANISMS 3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND GENERAL REGULARITIES OF THEIR EFFECTS ON THE ORGANISM .................................. ............... 91 3.1. Environment and conditions for the existence of organisms ........................ 91 3.2. Joint action of environmental factors .................... 98 4. THE MOST IMPORTANT ABIOTIC FACTORS AND BODIES 'ADAPTATION TO THEM ............... .............. 103 4.1. Radiation: Light ............................................... ....................... 103 4.2. Temperature................................................. ........................... 119 4.3. Humidity................................................. ............................. 142 4.4. Combined action of temperature and humidity ............. 158 4.5. Atmosphere................................................. ............................. 161 4.6. Topography................................................. ............................ 166 4.7. Other physical factors ............................................... . 170 685

Page 686

5. BASIC ENVIRONMENTAL ENVIRONMENT ............................................. .. 190 5.1. Aquatic life environment ............................................... ............... 191 5.2. Ground-air environment of life ........................................ 242 5.3. Soil as a living environment .............................................. ........... 282 5.4. Living organisms as an environment of life .................................... 316 6. BIOTIC NATURAL ... ............................................... 332 6.1. Homotypic and heterotypic reactions .................. 332 6.2. Zoogenic factors ................................................ ............... 335 6.3. Phytogenic factors ................................................ ............ 350 6.4. Anthropogenic factors ................................................ ...... 366 7. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS ....................................... ........... 372 7.1. External Bit ................................................ ..................... 373 7.2. Internal, physiological rhythms ................................ 375 7.3. Biological parts ............................................... ............... 393 7.4. Photoperiodism ................................................. .................... 395 8. LIFE FORMS OF LIFE ........................ ....... 405 8.1. The concept of "life form" of the organism ............................ 405 8.2. Life forms of plants ............................................... 407 8.3. Life forms of animals ............................................. 418 ECOLOGY POPULATIONS 9. STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF THE POPULATION ........................ 429 9.1. The concept of the population ............................................... ............ 429 9.2. Spatial subdivisions of populations ................. 430 9.3. Number and density of populations ................................. 433 9.4. Fertility and death rate ............................................... .... 437 9.5. Age structure of the population ........................................ 440 9.6. Sex composition of the population ............................................... ... 446 9.7. Genetic processes in populations ................................ 447 9.8. Population growth and growth curves .......................................... 451 10. INSpecific and interspecies RELATIONSHIP IN POPULATIONS, HOMEOSTASIS AND ECOLOGICAL DISTRIBUTIONS ............. 458 10.1. Intraspecific relationships ................................... 458 10.2. Interspecific relationships. ....................................... 485 10.3. Fluctuations in the number and homeostasis of populations ............ 490 10.4. Ecological strategies of populations ............................... 496 686

Page 687

ECOLOGY OF COMMUNITIES AND ECOSYSTEMS 11. ÖÅÍÎÇÛ ........................................... ............................... 499 11.1. The concept of biocenosis ............................................... ........... 499 11.2. Species structure of biocenosis ............................................ 502 11.3. Spatial structure of biocenosis ............................ 511 11.4. Relationships of organisms in biocenoses .............................. 518 11.5. Ecological niches ................................................ ........... 524 11.6. Ecological structure of biocenosis ................................. 532 11.7. Border effect ................................................ .......... 534 12. ECOSYSTEMS .................................... ................................. 536 12.1. The concept of ecosystems ............................................... ...... 536 12.2. Classification of the ecosystem ................................................ .. 537 12.3. Zoning of macroecosystems ............................................. 540 12.4. Ecosystem structure ................................................ ........... 549 12.5. The sun as a source of energy ........................................... 553 12.6. Cycles of substances ................................................ ......... 555 12.7. Energy flow in ecosystems ............................................. 587 12.8. Ecosystem productivity ................................................ 604 12.9. Ecosystem dynamics ................................................ ........... 610 12.10. The biosphere as a global ecosystem .............................. 622 12.11. Human activity and the evolution of the biosphere .............. 628 12.12. Development of the biosphere into the noosphere - the sphere of reason ........... 635 13. MAIN ECOLOGICAL PROBLEMS OF THE CONTEMPORARY AND THEIR WAYS ..................... . 640 13.1 The main environmental problems of our time ... 640 13.2 Ways to solve environmental problems .............................. 659 TERMS AND CONCEPTS ............................................... ............. 670 RANGE ................................... ............................................. 681 687

Ecology. Stepanovskikh A.S.

M .: 2001.-703 p.

The textbook outlines the main provisions of modern ecology, the structure of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere, considers the main living environments and adaptations of organisms to them, the ecology of populations, communities and ecosystems, gives the concept of the noosphere, highlights the issues of anthropogenic impact on nature as a whole and on individual components - air, water, flora and fauna, considerable attention is paid to the impact of human agricultural activities on nature, ways of solving environmental problems, environmental regulation of economic activities.

For university students, as well as everyone interested in ecology.

Format: doc

The size: 21.3 MB

Download: drive.google

FOREWORD 4
1. INTRODUCTION. ENVIRONMENTAL SUBJECT 5
1.1. BRIEF HISTORY OF ECOLOGY 5
1.2. CONTENT, SUBJECT AND TASKS OF ECOLOGY 16
1.3. RELATIONSHIP OF ECOLOGY WITH OTHER BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES. ECOLOGY UNITS 17
1.4. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH METHODS 20
2. BIOSPHERE: DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE. LIVING SUBSTANCE 24
2.1. DEFINITION AND STRUCTURE OF THE BIOSPHERE 24
2.2. LIVING SUBSTANCE OF THE BIOSPHERE 29
2.3. THE LAWS OF BIOGENIC MIGRATION OF ATOMS AND THE INVERSIBILITY OF EVOLUTION, LAWS OF ECOLOGY OF B. KOMMONER 34
3. ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS AND GENERAL REGULARITIES OF THEIR EFFECTS ON ORGANISMS 37
3.1. ENVIRONMENT AND EXISTENCE OF ORGANISMS 37
3.2. JOINT ACTION OF ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS 41
4. THE MOST IMPORTANT ABIOTIC FACTORS AND BODIES 'ADAPTATION TO THEM 46
4.1. RADIATION: LIGHT 46
4.2. TEMPERATURE 55
4.3. HUMIDITY 69
4.4. JOINT ACTION OF TEMPERATURE AND HUMIDITY 80
4.5. ATMOSPHERE 82
4.6. TOPOGRAPHY 84
4.7. OTHER PHYSICAL FACTORS 87
5. BASIC ENVIRONMENTS 99
5.1. WATER LIFE ENVIRONMENT 99
5.2. LAND-AIR ENVIRONMENT 121
5.3. SOIL AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT 147
5.4. LIVING ORGANISMS AS A LIFE ENVIRONMENT 165
6. BIOTIC FACTORS 177
6.1. HOMOTYPICAL AND 177
HETEROTYPE REACTIONS 177
6.2. ZOOGENIC FACTORS 179
6.3. PHYTOGENIC FACTORS 188
6.4. ANTHROPOGENIC FACTORS 197
7. BIOLOGICAL RHYTHMS 201
7.1. EXTERNAL RHYTHMS 201
7.2. INTERNAL, PHYSIOLOGICAL, RHYTHMS 202
7.3. BIOLOGICAL WATCH 210
7.4. PHOTOPERIODISM 212
8. LIFE FORMS OF ORGANISMS 217
8.1. THE CONCEPT OF THE "LIFE FORM" OF THE BODY 217
8.2. LIFE FORMS OF PLANTS 219
8.3. LIFE FORMS OF ANIMALS 225
9. STRUCTURE AND DYNAMICS OF POPULATIONS 231
9.1. POPULATION CONCEPT 231
9.2. SPATIAL UNITS OF POPULATIONS 232
9.3. NUMBER AND DENSITY OF POPULATIONS 234
9.4. Fertility and mortality 236
9.5. AGE STRUCTURE OF THE POPULATION 238
9.6. GENDER COMPOSITION 243
9.7. GENETIC PROCESSES IN POPULATIONS 244
9.8. POPULATION GROWTH AND GROWTH CURVES 248
10. INSpecies and interspecies relationships in populations, homeostasis and environmental strategies 251
10.1. INTR-SPECIFIC RELATIONSHIPS 251
10.2. SPECIES RELATIONSHIPS 265
10.3. POPULATION FLUCTUATIONS AND HOMEOSTASIS 267
10.4. ENVIRONMENTAL POPULATION STRATEGIES 271
11. BIOCENOSES 273
11.1. THE CONCEPT OF BIOCENOSIS 273
11.2. SPECIES STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 275
11.3. SPATIAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 280
11.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN BIOCENOSES 285
11.5. ENVIRONMENTAL NICHES 288
11.6. ECOLOGICAL STRUCTURE OF BIOCENOSIS 294
11.7. BORDER EFFECT 296
12. ECOSYSTEMS 299
12.1. CONCEPTS OF ECOSYSTEMS 299
12.2. CLASSIFICATION OF ECOSYSTEMS 300
12.3. ZONING OF MACROECOSYSTEMS 301
12.4. STRUCTURE OF ECOSYSTEMS 306
12.5. THE SUN AS A SOURCE OF ENERGY 309
12.6. CIRCULATIONS OF SUBSTANCES 311
12.7. ENERGY FLOW IN ECOSYSTEMS 330
12.8. PRODUCTIVITY OF ECOSYSTEMS 344
12.9. DYNAMICS OF ECOSYSTEMS 348
12.10. THE BIOSPHERE AS A GLOBAL ECOSYSTEM 358
12.11. HUMAN ACTIVITIES AND EVOLUTION OF THE BIOSPHERE 363
12.12. DEVELOPMENT OF THE BIOSPHERE INTO THE NOOSPHERE - THE SPHERE OF MIND 371
13. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON NATURE 376
13.1. CONCEPT OF NATURE, NATURAL RESOURCES 376
13.2. POPULATION GROWTH 378
13.3. ANTHROPOGENIC MATERIAL BALANCE 380
13.4. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON ENERGY FLOWS AND CIRCULATION OF SUBSTANCES 387
13.5. CLASSIFICATION OF ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS 397
13.6. ENVIRONMENTAL CRISES AND ENVIRONMENTAL DISASTERS 399
13.7. DEFINITION OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION. TYPES OF CONTAMINANTS 402
13.8. MAIN SOURCES OF ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION 404
13.9. MAN-GENERAL ACCIDENTS AND NATURAL DISASTERS 412
13.10. ECOLOGICAL SITUATION 415
14. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON ATMOSPHERIC AIR 420
14.1. STRUCTURE AND COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 420
14.2. SOURCES AND COMPOSITION OF ATMOSPHERIC AIR POLLUTION 423
14.3. PHYSICAL AND ENVIRONMENTAL CONSEQUENCES OF ATMOSPHERIC POLLUTION 425
14.4. AIR POLLUTION MEASURES 432
15. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON THE HYDROSPHERE 436
15.1. BASIC INFORMATION ABOUT THE HYDROSPHERE 436
15.2. ROLE OF WATER IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE 438
15.3. FRESH WATER RESERVES 441
15.4. USE OF WATER RESOURCES 442
15.5. SOURCES OF WATER POLLUTION 444
15.6. WATER TREATMENT AND PROTECTION MEASURES 450
16. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON VEGETATION 457
16.1. THE IMPORTANCE OF PLANTS IN NATURE AND HUMAN LIFE 457
16.2. HUMAN IMPACT ON VEGETATION 461
16.3. FOREST - THE MOST IMPORTANT PLANT RESOURCE 462
16.4. FOREST AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES 466
16.5. FOREST AND TOURISM 469
16.6. VEGETATION CONSERVATION MEASURES 470
16.7. PROTECTION OF ECONOMICALLY VALUABLE AND RARE PLANT SPECIES 472
17. ANTHROPOGENIC EFFECTS ON ANIMALS 474
17.1. THE IMPORTANCE OF ANIMALS IN THE BIOSPHERE AND HUMAN LIFE 474
17.2. HUMAN EFFECTS ON ANIMALS, CAUSES OF THEIR EXTINCTION 479
17.3. ANIMAL SAFETY MEASURES 484
18. IMPACT OF HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON NATURE 493
18.1. AGRICULTURE AS A SOURCE OF FOOD RESOURCES 493
18.2. INFLUENCE OF HUMAN AGRICULTURAL ACTIVITIES ON ENVIRONMENTAL EQUILIBRIUM IN NATURE 497
18.3. ENERGY CONSUMPTION, FUNCTIONING AND BIOPRODUCTIVITY AGROECOSYSTEM 500
18.4. RELATIONS OF ORGANISMS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 507
18.5. LANDSCAPE ORGANIZATION OF AGROECOSYSTEM 510
18.6. ROLE OF INDIVIDUAL COMPONENTS IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 515
18.7. ECOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF AGRICULTURE INTENSIFICATION 524
18.8. PROBLEM OF LAND PROTECTION 539
18.9. ALTERNATIVE FARMING 545
18.10. LAND RECOVERY 548
18.11. NATURAL MEADOWS AND PASTURES IN AGROECOSYSTEMS 550
19. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION AND PUBLIC HEALTH 557
19.1. HUMAN ENVIRONMENT 557
19.2. HUMAN NEEDS 559
19.3. THE CONCEPT OF "HUMAN HEALTH" 563
19.4. EFFECTS OF ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH ON HUMAN HEALTH 566
19.5. ENVIRONMENTAL RISK 572
20. WAYS TO SOLVE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 575
20.1. LAWS OF RELATIONSHIP HUMAN-NATURE 575
20.2. WAYS TO SOLVE ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 580
20.3. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION 594
20.4. ECOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND EDUCATION 596
21. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION OF ECONOMIC ACTIVITIES 599
21.1. ENVIRONMENTAL FORECAST AND FORECASTING 599
21.2. MODELING NATURAL PROCESSES IN SOLVING ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEMS 602
21.3. ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING 607
21.4. ENVIRONMENTAL QUALITY ASSESSMENT 610
21.5. ENVIRONMENTAL REGULATION OF POLLUTANTS 614
21.6. ECOLOGICAL APPROVAL AND PASSPORTIZATION 616
21.7. ENVIRONMENTAL EXPERTISE 618
TERMS AND CONCEPTS 621
REFERENCES 634

2 3 ..

A.S. STEPANOVSKIKH - ECOLOGY

Moscow "2003

UDC 574 (075.8)
BBK 28.081
S 79

Reviewers:
Dr. S.-kh. sciences, prof .. Hon. scientist of the Russian Federation A.G. Taskaeva
(Chelyabinsk Agroengineering University);
Dr. Biol. Sciences, prof. T.V. Teplyakova
(Siberian University of Consumer Cooperation);
Dr. S.-kh. Sciences, prof., Hon. scientist of the Russian Federation V.A. Chulkina
(Novosibirsk Agrarian University)

Editor-in-chief of the publishing house N.D. Eriashvili

Stepanovskikh A.S.
C 79 Ecology: Textbook for universities. - M .: UNITI-DANA, 2001 .-- 703 p.

ISBN 5-238-00284-X

The textbook outlines the main provisions of modern ecology, the structure of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere, considers the main living environments and adaptations of organisms to them, the ecology of populations, communities and ecosystems, gives the concept of the noosphere, highlights the issues of anthropogenic impact on nature as a whole and on individual components - air, water, flora and fauna, considerable attention is paid to the impact of human agricultural activities on nature, ways of solving environmental problems, environmental regulation of economic activities.
For university students, as well as everyone interested in ecology.

BBK 28.081

ISBN 5-238-00284-X
Original Russian Text © A.S. Stepanovskikh, 2001
© 000 "UNITY-DANA PUBLISHING HOUSE", 2001
Reproduction of the entire book or any part of it
prohibited without written permission
publishers

Stepanovskikh Anatoly Sergeevich

Doctor of Agricultural Sciences, Professor, Academician of the International Academy of Agrarian Education and the International Academy of Sciences of Ecology and Life Safety, Vice-Rector for Research and Head of the Department of Ecology and Plant Protection of the Kurgan State Agricultural Academy named after T.S. Maltsev.
A.S. Stepanovskikh is a prominent scientist in the field of agricultural science and education. His research interests are related to ecology and plant protection. Author of 150 scientific and methodological works with a total volume of more than 350 printed sheets, including 2 monographs, 15 books and brochures, 30 textbooks and teaching aids for university students.
International Academy of Sciences of Ecology and Life Safety for his contribution to ecology A.S. Stepanovskikh was awarded the M.V. Lomonosov.

FOREWORD

A specialist in any field of activity must have environmental knowledge, understand the essence of modern problems of interaction between society and nature, understand the causality of possible negative impacts of economic activity on the natural environment, be able to competently assess the nature, direction and consequences of the impact of specific human activities on nature, linking the solution production tasks in compliance with the relevant environmental requirements, to develop and implement scientifically based solutions to environmental problems. Hence, the role of training environmental personnel, environmental education and education of the country's population is great.
The proposed textbook sets out the main provisions of modern ecology, the structure of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere, considers the main living environments and adaptations of organisms to them, the ecology of populations, communities and ecosystems, gives the concept of the noosphere, highlights the issues of anthropogenic impact on nature as a whole and on individual components such as air, water, flora and fauna. Considerable attention is paid to the impact of human agricultural activities on nature, ways of solving environmental problems, environmental regulation of economic activities.
In preparing the textbook, materials from textbooks and teaching aids on ecology, environmental protection, and natural resource management by domestic and foreign authors were widely used. All of them are deeply grateful and grateful.

The main provisions of modern ecology, the structure and evolution of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere are outlined. The main living environments and the adaptation of organisms to them, the ecology of individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems are considered, the concept of the noosphere is given, environmental problems of our time and ways of solving them are highlighted. The theoretical material is supported by practical tasks, which makes it easier to master the material being studied. For students in environmental studies and teachers. It can be useful for students of biological specialties of universities, teachers of secondary and secondary specialized educational institutions, leaders and specialists in ecology.

Biological ecology. Theory and practice: A textbook for university students enrolled in environmental specialties / Stepanovskikh A.S. - M.: UNITI-DANA, 2015 .-- 791 p .: 60x90 1/16 ISBN 978-5-238-01482-1 read

978-5-238-01482-1

The main provisions of modern ecology, the structure and evolution of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere are outlined. The main living environments and adaptation of organisms to them, the ecology of individuals, populations, communities and ecosystems are considered, the concept of the noosphere is given, environmental problems of our time and ways of solving them are highlighted. The theoretical material is supported by practical tasks, which makes it easier to master the material being studied. For students in environmental studies and teachers. It can be useful for students of biological specialties of universities, teachers of secondary and secondary specialized educational institutions, leaders and specialists in ecology.

The book is part of the collection:

• UNITY-DANA

Stepanovskikh Anatoly Sergeevich

Stepanovskikh, A.S. General ecology[Electronic resource]: Textbook for universities / AS Stepanovskikh. - 2nd ed., Add. and revised - M.: UNITY-DANA, 2012 .-- 687 p. - ISBN 5-238-00854-6. read

The main provisions of modern ecology, the structure and evolution of the biosphere, the role of living matter in the biosphere are outlined. The main living environments and the adaptation of organisms to them, the ecology of populations, communities and ecosystems are considered, the concept of the noosphere is given, environmental problems of our time and ways of solving them are highlighted. For university students enrolled in environmental specialties and teachers. It can be useful for students of biological specialties of universities, teachers of secondary and secondary specialized educational institutions, leaders and specialists in ecology.