Any system has a number of basic features.

First, it is a set of elements ( separate parts), selected according to one or another principle and playing the role of subsystems. The latter are relatively independent, but interact in various ways within the system (they are located next to and border on each other; give rise to each other; influence each other). To preserve the integrity of the system, any interaction must be harmonious.

Secondly, each system has a structure, that is, a certain structure, the mutual arrangement of elements (within the same composition of elements, certain modifications of the structure are possible). The structure is also called the set of links between the elements of the system. It may, to one degree or another, depend not only on their location, but also on their characteristics (for example, relationships in purely female, male and mixed teams engaged in the same business will be different). Sometimes in everyday life the concept of structure is used as a synonym for the concept of organization. The structure is the basis of the system, gives it integrity and internal organization, within which the interaction of elements is subject to certain laws. Systems where organization is minimal are called disordered, such as a crowd on the street.

Thirdly, the system has boundaries separating it from the environment. These boundaries can be transparent, allowing the penetration of external influences, and opaque, tightly separating it from the rest of the world. Systems that carry out a free two-way exchange of energy, matter, information with the environment are called open; otherwise, one speaks of closed systems operating relatively independently of the environment. If the system does not receive resources from the outside at all, its life tends to fade and stop (for example, a clock stops if it is not started). Open systems that independently draw the resources necessary for their functioning from the external environment and transform them accordingly are, in principle, inexhaustible. Insufficient or, on the contrary, excessively active exchange with the environment can destroy the system (due to lack of resources or inability to assimilate them due to excessive quantity and diversity). Therefore, the system must be in a state of internal and external balance, which ensures optimal adaptation to the environment and successful development.

The main features of the system:

• Integrity, connectivity or relative independence from the environment and systems (the most significant quantitative characteristic of the system). With the disappearance of connectivity, the system also disappears, although the elements of the system and even some relationships between them can be preserved;
• the presence of subsystems and connections between them or the presence of the structure of the system (the most significant quality characteristic systems). With the disappearance of subsystems or connections between them, the system itself may also disappear;
• the possibility of isolation or abstraction from the environment, i.e. relative isolation from those environmental factors that do not sufficiently affect the achievement of the goal;
• communication with the environment for the exchange of resources;
• Subordination of the entire organization of the system to some goal (as, however, follows from the definition of the system);
• · emergence or irreducibility of system properties to the properties of elements.

System signs, properties, characteristics. Basic provisions of system analysis. Peculiarities of analysis of rare events Systems thinking and management. Efficiency of functioning and development of systems. Basic principles system management. Entropy laws.

SYSTEM SIGNS, PROPERTIES, CHARACTERISTICS

System-wide patterns - these are patterns that characterize the fundamental features of the construction, functioning and development complex systems.

Since there is no sufficiently correct definition of a system, an analysis of various system concepts shows that there are several basic features, properties and characteristics that an object or phenomenon must have in order to be considered a system.

First of all, these are signs integrity and articulation. The main feature here is the sign of integrity, since the system is considered as a single whole, consisting of interacting and (or) interconnected elements.

Integrity - the primacy of the whole in relation to the parts, the emergence of a new function in the system, a new quality, organically arising from its constituent elements, but not inherent in any of them, taken in isolation. Under integrity understand the internal unity and fundamental irreducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements. Holistic system defined as a set of elements (To R with fixed property R

S- the predicate “...to be a system*.

Availability tse, justice implies that a change in the state of any element of the system affects other elements and can lead to a change in the state of the entire system. Therefore, it is often impossible to decompose a system without losing it. integrative properties.

• The second group includes signs of the presence of stable connections (relationships) between the elements of the system, exceeding in strength (power) the connections of these elements with elements that are not included in this system. It should be borne in mind that among any connections, the main ones are backbone. Their formation determines the integrative properties of the system, its specificity. In this case, individual properties of a number of elements can be enhanced, while others can be suppressed. However, the degree of suppression, as a rule, is never complete, and therefore, during the formation of the system, not only “useful” functions arise that ensure the effectiveness of most states and the preservation of qualitative features, but also dysfunctions that negatively affect the functioning of the system. But from a systemic point of view, only essential connections that determine integrative properties.
• The third group of signs determines the presence integrative properties(qualities) inherent in the system as a whole, but absent from the elements. Integrative properties are due to the fact that its properties, despite the dependence on the properties of the elements, are not completely determined by them. An integrative property is something new that is formed during the coordinated interaction of the elements united in the structure and which the elements did not possess before.

The emergence of new qualities (connections, properties) when elements are combined into subsystems, and subsystems into a system is called emergence.

Emergence - the degree of irreducibility of the properties of a system to the properties of the elements of which it consists. This is a property that causes the emergence of new qualities that are not inherent in the elements that make up the system. The essence of emergence lies in the accumulation and enhancement of some properties of the components simultaneously with the leveling, weakening and hiding of other properties due to their interaction. Therefore, it turns out to be impossible to predict the properties of the system as a whole by disassembling and analyzing it in parts.

Each element of the system To, as a rule, has a set of its own properties (states, operating modes, behavioral capabilities, etc.) O However, the number of system properties N always greater than the sum of the properties of individual elements 0 this system. At the same time, the system has

new, special system properties that ensure its integrity (integra- activity) - the internal unity and irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties that make up all the elements. Although the properties of complex systems are not reduced to the sum of the properties of elements, they have an important feature of their development: over time, their elements acquire more and more specialized functions while increasing the integrity and stability of the original system. This also determines the presence integrative properties(qualities) inherent in the system as a whole.

One of the systemic features is non-additivity, since the properties of the object under study cannot be reduced to the properties of its parts, and also derived only on their basis.

Nonadditivity - the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of a system to the sum of the properties of its constituent components. Therefore, an attempt to evaluate the effectiveness of the system E s as a sum of weighted partial efficiencies of its components Ei is a rough approximation and is valid only for a degenerate system that has split into separate elements. Only then does the equality that defines the physical additivity".

To(- normalized coefficients that take into account the "contribution" of each /-th component to the efficiency of the system -

The fourth group is the signs that characterize the presence in the system of a certain organizations, which manifests itself in the reduction of uncertainty (entropy), covering only those properties of elements that are associated with the processes of maintaining and developing integrity, i.e. the existence of the system. An organization arises when regular, stable connections and/or relationships arise between elements (objects, phenomena) that actualize some properties of the elements and limit others. The organization is shown in structural features system, complexity, ability to develop and maintain the system. The organization of the system is a higher level of its orderliness. To increase organization and self-organization, it is necessary to receive additional energy from outside or from within (from subsystems) and negentropy.

Property system determines its difference or its similarity with other systems, manifested in their interaction.

Feature - something that reflects some property of the system.

The properties of a system are generated by its structural patterns. Depending on the type of organization, various structures can be formed from a combination of elements and their relationships.

In a well-organized system of interaction of structural elements /b h> > tm systems S mutually agreed, purposeful and synchronized to achieve common purpose. The potential 0(5) of such a system is greater than the sum of the potentials of all constituent elements (subsystems)

In this way, structural patterns these are the most general regularities that generate the properties of the system as a whole.

One of the main system properties is the hierarchical structure of the system. This is related to the potential articulation systems and the presence for each system of a variety of connections and relationships. A hierarchical structure can also be inherent in relations (connections), since they can also be decomposed into elementary ones, and on this basis a lower-level system is formed. As a result, the system acts as a complex hierarchical formation, in which different levels and types of relationships are distinguished.

Hierarchy - principle structural organization multilevel systems, which consists in streamlining interactions between levels and providing for the subordination of the system supersystem (hypersystem) and subsystems - system. In this case, each component of the system can be considered as a system (subsystem) of a wider global system. The purpose of each element of the lower level is to subordinate the goal of a higher level. Only then can a complex hierarchical system function as a whole. On fig. 3.1 is a schematic representation of a hierarchical system in which the systems to be studied in detail A t A 2 , A $ are included in the supersystem (hypersystem) D. System A consists of three subsystems В ( , В 2 , By If the researcher is interested in the characteristics of one of the subsystems, for example, V ) already V will be the system under study, y-fi - its supersystem (hypersystem), a Q, C2, C3 - subsystems.

Rice. 3.1.

As a result of the hierarchical structure, it becomes possible to sequentially include lower-level systems into higher-level systems. The hierarchy of systems is well illustrated by the tree structures of graph theory. concept level used in several meanings.

First, the level is interpreted in organizational terms.

for instance , the level of organization of the work of the System Operator (CDU) by the types of tasks to be solved differs significantly from the tasks solved at the level of RDO and the level of consumer dispatch services.

Secondly, the level fixes a certain commonality of the laws of functioning, the unity of the spatio-temporal topology of the construction of the system components. From these positions, any production facility can be considered at the technological, information management, economic, social or other levels. Levels of this type are called strata. A stratified view can be used as a means of consistently deepening ideas about the system, its detailing. The idea of ​​stratification and Si with the relations given on them R and /?2 are considered isomorphic if:

a) their elements pairwise one-to-one correspond to each other;

b) if some subset of elements of the first system is connected by the relation /?!, then a subset of the corresponding elements of the second system is connected by the relation Ri and vice versa.

For instance. between elements X,*2 and aty,At2 first system Si there are relations R. Similarly, in the second system Si correlate Rj elements corresponding to them (Fig. 3.4, a).

Rice. 3.4.

The presence of isomorphism of the two analyzed systems and Si means that if the system S is isomorphic to the system Si, then S can be considered as

modelM(S) systems Si and vice versa. Then the study of the properties of the 5*2 system is reduced to the study of the properties of the system model S - M(S() or to use its known properties.

for instance , isomorphic is the structure of a radial electrical network that provides power to a group of heterogeneous consumers.

Practice shows some attitude R t then the corresponding relation holds for the corresponding elements of the second system Ri(Fig. 3.4, b).

Under homomorphism, the analogy between two systems is less than under isomorphism, the resemblance to the original is incomplete, and the real system may have different models homomorphic to it. Thus, isomorphism is a special case of homomorphism.

Indicators such as the number of elements (equipment volume) that make up the system; structure of connections between them; qualification of the personnel involved in the creation of the system, its installation, commissioning, operation; ease of use, etc. already give an intuition about system complexity, which is one of the main system characteristics. An objective characteristic of the complexity of a system depends on the qualitative and quantitative differences between the components and connections of the system (its diversity).

Complexity:

• 1) a relative concept, depending on the level of research (analysis) of the system;
• 2) a characteristic of the system, non-linearly dependent on the set of its constituent elements (subsystems), qualitative differences between them, the number, type and form of connections;
• 3) a property due to the internal regularity of the system, which determines a number of its most significant parameters, including the spatial structure and properties of the processes occurring in this structure.

Complex systems cannot be described in language simple laws. Complexity depends more on the variety of elements and relationships than on their number. The number of elements, the strength of interelement bonds, their localization can change uncontrollably, which makes the behavior of complex systems poorly predictable. The experience of observing real objects shows that they function under the conditions of action. a large number random factors. Therefore, predicting the behavior of a complex system can make sense only within the framework of probabilistic categories. For expected events, only the probabilities of their occurrence can be indicated, and with respect to a number of quantities, distribution laws, average values, variances, and other probabilistic characteristics have to be analyzed.

To study the process of functioning of each specific complex system, taking into account random factors, it is necessary to have a fairly clear idea of ​​the sources of random effects and reliable data on their quantitative characteristics. Therefore, the calculation or theoretical analysis associated with the study of a complex system is preceded by the accumulation of statistical material characterizing the behavior individual elements and the system as a whole under real operating conditions.

Most studies distinguish:

• - structural, or static complexity determined by the structure and connectivity of elements and subsystems;
• - dynamic complexity (complexity of behavior) systems in time;
• - evolutionary complexity (development complexity), including qualitatively different states, stages, phases, stages and levels of system development.

The complexity of the system determines and nonlinearity all variable parameters, structure, connections. Nonlinearity leads to the fact that many variables depend not only on time, but are also functions of other variables and affect each other. Therefore, one of the tasks of optimizing the system is to achieve maximum organization with the same complexity or reduce complexity for a given level of organization. In the process of cognition of any system, it is necessary to pose questions that are criterion pairs, the relationships of which are shown in Fig. 3.5.

Rice. 3.5.

A system consisting of even a relatively small number of elements is capable of high dynamic complexity. It should be borne in mind that the appearance of even one additional element can lead to the creation of many additional links. Moreover, the addition of each subsequent element increases the number of connections to a greater extent than when adding the previous one.

for instance , there are two elements A and V. Only two connections and two directions are possible here (Fig. 3.6, a).

Adding one more element C increases the number of possible connections to 6 (Fig. 3.6, 6 ). If two elements A and V enter into a coalition, and it begins to influence C, then the number of bonds increases to 8 (Fig. 3.6, v). And if there can be 3 such coalitions (AB, AC, BC), then the number of links will reach 12.

The formal concept of complexity can be represented as follows.

Let there be P element types and To- the number of elements of each type. For each element type method of expert assessments or intuitively (taking into account the accumulated experience) the complexity of the element is set, measured by a certain number sy. Then the complexity s system consisting of elements with complexity sj(/" = 1, 2, i), we will call the quantity

kj (j - [, 2, m) is the number of elements of the /th type included in the system.

Rice. 3.6.

Since if there is PC = L elements in the system the maximum number of connections between them N = L(L-1), then for a sufficiently large L number of actual

connections - N In this case, the relative number of realized connections a = .

Then the complexity of the system is estimated as

where

v is a coefficient that takes into account the complexity of links compared to the complexity of the elements of the system.

There are many proposals for representing a large technical system in the form of a "black box". However, S. Lem 1 in the "Sum of Technology" noted: black box cannot be programmed with algorithm.

Algorithm:

• 1) once and for all, a program of action drawn up in which everything is foreseen in advance;
• 2) an exact, reproducible, enforceable prescription that determines - step by step - how to solve the problem.

Having an algorithm for some process, it is possible to investigate - within given boundaries - all successive phases, all stages of this process.

With regard to very complex systems, such a study is impossible. Black box, as a very complex system, defies description; its algorithm is unknown to anyone and cannot be known, its actions are probabilistic in nature, and, therefore, placed twice in the same situation, it is not at all obliged to act in the same way. In addition - and this is probably the most important - black box there is a machine that learns from its own mistakes as it takes specific actions.

1 Lem S. amount of technology. M.: Publishing House ACT; St. Petersburg: Terra Fantastica, 2002. 668 p.

The real complexity of the problem does not allow one to close oneself in probabilistic schemes. Even where there are systems with a high degree of organization, very small structural changes can cause significant changes, not always accompanied by positive consequences. Therefore, it can be noted that simple systems does not really exist. However, in practice, this complexity can be neglected if it does not affect what we are interested in. V modern theory systems, this procedure is called - highlighting the level of research: the researcher moves from the original system, which has an infinitely complex structure, to models, whose structure contains a limited number of links and variables. The whole study comes down to identifying significant shifts and simultaneously (scientifically substantiated) discarding non-essential ones.

One of the characteristics of complexity may be the ability of the system to self-organization.

self-organization- the property of a system to change its internal structure and function to adapt to environmental influences. Self-organization is associated with the formation of a new structure and a decrease in entropy systems. Order in the system can be maintained not only by management from a single center, but also with the help of self-organization.

Self-organizing systems make it possible to adapt to the environment, and it is precisely such systems that are flexible and resistant to disturbances external conditions. Self-organization is expressed in the ability to predict changes in the structure and functions of the system when choosing a goal with adaptation to the environment and to carry out management with a specific goal. In self-organizing systems, experience is recorded about the past, present and possible future, both of the system and the environment. Based on this knowledge, forecasts of the future are formed, which determine the strategic goals and trajectories of movement towards them. Self-organizing systems inherit "generic characteristics" and acquire new properties that are adequate to changes in the external environment, including through mutation, which indicates the creative essence of nature in all evolution.

The founders of the modern theory of self-organization of systems are the laureate Nobel Prize I. Prigozhy and Yu A. Urmantsev, which shows that only dissipative systems, the emergence of new structures and, consequently, self-organization is possible. main feature dissipativity system and its self-organization is the irreversibility of the process occurring in the system.

If the system is physical, then thanks to dissipation(energy dissipation or the transition of motion energy into heat), the processes occurring in it are irreversible.

If the system is social, economic, etc., it does not introduce classical concept energy. The irreversibility of the process occurring in such systems is conditional. Dissipativity in them is understood in a broader sense than simple energy dissipation, namely, as a property responsible for the irreversibility of ongoing processes. From this point of view, energy dissipation (dissipation) is a particular manifestation of this property in physical systems.

The irreversibility of the process is the main property of the self-organization of the system, since only with irreversible processes occurring in the system, its self-organization and reduction is possible. entropy. In reversible processes characteristic of conservative systems, self-organization is impossible, and entropy is always constant or increasing.

Consider the system A, interacting with the external environment and performing the function assigned to it. Another system - V controls the quality of the system A, by assessing the impacts that the external environment has on the system A. If the influence of the external environment on the system A are within acceptable limits fixed in system memory V, it gives a confirmation signal. Otherwise, the system V generates commands that can change the values ​​of the parameters of some elements and (or) the structure by breaking some links or including new ones, turning off unnecessary ones in this moment or the inclusion of redundant elements of the system A. The process of sequentially changing the properties of the system A ends with the impact of the external environment already within the permissible limits of the parameters of the functioning of the system A. This means that the quality of the system A satisfies the specified requirements, and its properties are not subject to further change until the environmental conditions again go beyond the permissible limits, then the control process will continue.

This approach makes it possible to combine systems A and in in single system. If in this new system the processes of successive changes in properties, parameters, indicators over a finite time lead to the fact that the effects of the external environment fall within acceptable limits, then this system is called self-organizing. In other words, self-organizing called such systems that, due to changes in their properties, have the ability to sustainably maintain the nature of interaction with the external environment, despite possible changes in external and internal factors.

One of the conditions for the existence of any system is its sustainability to the perturbing influences to which it is constantly subjected. Term stability, like many other terms of systems theory, it has many meanings and is presented in several editions depending on the type of system and its state, the purpose of the study, and other factors and parameters.

Sustainability:

• 1) the ability of the system to maintain dynamic balance with the environment as the ability to change and adapt;
• 2) the ability of the system to respond to disturbances of internal and external parameters, maintaining the same or close to it state (behavior) for a certain period of time;
• 3) the ability of the system to independently maintain its homeostasis.

An increase in resilience is sometimes directly related to an increase in complexity.

system (the total number of elements and their redundancy), complicating the response to disturbances. For clarity of presentation, the concepts classical(on A.M. Lyapunov!) and structural sustainability. The first is used in the problems of studying the results of external influences on fixed systems, the second - to identify qualitative changes in the trajectories of movement (behavior) of the system with changes in its structure.

In the functioning and transformation of nonlinear systems with unstable equilibrium (or in the region of unstable equilibrium), an important role is played by random events. At the same time, even an event that is insignificant in its value and magnitude, due to positive nonlinear feedback, can cause significant and unexpected (often negative) impacts on the system. V bifurcation points the process of branching possible

1 Alexander Mikhailovich Lyapunov (1857-1918) - Russian mathematician and mechanic, academician of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences, in his fundamental work "The General Problem of the Stability of Motion" he comprehensively considered the problem of the stability of the motion of systems with a finite number of degrees of freedom.

ways of development of the system, the forecast of the course of which is impossible with sufficient accuracy. These questions are reflected in the "chaos theory".

Part of the system parameters are systemic(basic, vital). They can be not only quantitative, but also qualitative. The answer to the question depends on their value: is it possible for a long-term, stable existence of the system, its survivability, saving it homeostasis.

Homeostasis - functional state of the system, which ensures the maintenance of dynamic constancy within acceptable limits vital functions and parameters of the system with changes in the internal and external environment. It retains vital functions and parameters, thus supporting the existence of the system itself with integrative properties. It is assumed that homeostasis is achieved through the action of control systems. In a broader sense, we can talk about the presence of homeostasis in the reservation of system elements.

The influence of changes in vital parameters on the system is not the same and depends on many factors of external (environmental state, connections with other systems) and internal (range of parameter changes) character. As already noted (Section 2), the successive change of system states associated with a change in the mode parameters and (or) system parameters in time determines its behavior.

Example . Let us define (Fig. 3.7) the area of ​​​​permissible change in the system-wide parameter X like (a, 0).

Rice. 3. 7.

As long as its value does not go beyond a X

When exiting X outside the region systemic homeostasis(dotted line in Fig. 3.7) the system loses its integrative quality, and by definition when / > *5 ceases to exist. but critical values private components of a system-wide parameter X can take the values ​​(y > a, 6 partial homeostasis y XX or 5 X 0 the system usually enters a new qualitative state, but does not cease to exist as a whole. This occurs in the time ranges (/,/ 2 ) and (/ 3 ,/ 4 ).

Approximation of system parameters to the maximum permissible values ​​(regions A and V in fig. 3.7) can generate a situation systemic crisis- stages of the life of the system, when the long-term further functioning of the system is in question.

A systemic crisis can lead to the disintegration, destruction and even cessation of the existence of the system, if appropriate measures are not taken in time. Here the system enters the zone bifurcations and her future condition becomes unpredictable. Under the influence of the slightest fluctuations, even of any one factor, internal or external, it can begin the process of random movement in several alternative directions, the extreme of which is a return to a normal state or the cessation of existence.

As an illustration, in fig. 3.8 shows the trajectories of the system with points of possible bifurcation.

Rice. 3.8.

Under the influence of a number of factors at some point R, there is a branching of the trajectory of the system. At this point, the system itself makes a decision and randomly chooses a new direction of its further movement to the next bifurcation point pj+. There again a choice is made and the process is repeated. Precisely predicting the moments of bifurcations and the results of choosing the direction of motion is impossible with any deep and complete knowledge of the system, or with any arbitrarily long observation of its behavior.

A special type of crises are sudden, sharp, avalanche changes in system parameters due to disruptive external influences or internal contradictions. The essence of any jump-like transformation lies in such abrupt changes in the individual structural elements of the system (or the system as a whole), which lead to a sudden change in its paths. further development. Some forms of such jumps are considered as catastrophes(dash-dotted line in Fig. 3.7).

Avalanche process(Fig. 3.9) is due to the accumulation of degradation factors (energy) even before the “explosion*” occurs. The constantly accumulated energy of degradation forms a negative background EN f. After the degradation energy exceeds the value of EN fl at / l, an intensive, avalanche-like development of the process occurs, which, at the moment / at the achievement of the value of EN fn, leads to a catastrophe ("explosion*"). A special case of the development of an avalanche process is exponential growth, which has a characteristic property called " doubling time*. Doubling time - the interval over which the value of the corresponding system variable doubles.

Disaster, "explosion"

Degradation Energy Threshold

Rice. 3.9. The development of an avalanche process due to the accumulation of a negative background of degradation

Example . Exponential growth is visual when compared with a certain limit. Assume that one of the system parameters, starting with the value I - 0.1. doubles every year (Table 3.1).

Table 3.1

The crisis level of this system parameter will be taken P cr= 10.0. The longer his conflict interactions between his growth and the accepted constraint become significant. For more visual illustration when constructing the R(/) dependence, the scale should be chosen so that the crisis level is approximately in the middle of the vertical axis, since this clearly shows the steepness of the curve and the "explosive" nature of the process.

If a stressed state is observed inside the system, then the appearance of trigger (three ger) mechanisms capable of transferring the system to another state. Depending on the magnitude of tension, a different level is required trigger to release the internal energy of the system and its transformation.

Examples development of emergency avalanche-like processes in the electric power industry, leading to a violation of its stability, are “voltage avalanche” and “frequency avalanche *.

To stop any avalanche-like process, four basic conditions must be met:

• 1) reduce the growth (decrease) of the defining system parameter;
• 2) reduce the time spent by the determining parameter in critical areas A and V(see fig. 3.7);
• 3) increase the likelihood of a productive impact on the determining parameter when approaching the area of ​​systemic homeostasis a p (see Fig. 3.7);
• 4) effectively predict the behavior of the determining parameter.

In the evolution of the development of complex systems, an essential role is played by system integration. It is based on a selection mechanism that preserves, coordinates and strengthens those connections and relationships that increase the structural and functional correspondence of the elements of the system, destroying and weakening unstable relationships. At the same time, there is an improvement in the organization of the system and its structure, which, as a rule, is accompanied by a change (often an increase) in the number of elements and a variety of relationships with the environment. This phenomenon appears to be system progress.

System progress characterized by the occurrence of structural and functional changes leading to improvement organizations systems. It consists in increasing the amount of useful information contained in its structure and may be accompanied by a complication of organization, although the process of development of social structures, scientific theories often leads to their simplification. However, in general, advanced systems in the form modern technologies, economy, social structures usually become more complex.

Summarizing the above reasoning, we note that the object under study is presented in this study as a system if it is identified by the signs of segmentation, integrity, connectedness and non-additivity, and the study itself belongs to the class of systems if it is procedurally constructed without violating the provisions of these signs.

The salient features of the system are:

The presence of interconnected parts in the object;

Interaction between parts of an object;

The ordering of this interaction to achieve the overall goal of the system.

There are two main types of systems:

open

Closed.

A closed system has rigid fixed boundaries, its actions are relatively independent of the environment surrounding the system. Clocks are an example of a closed system. An open system is a system that interacts with the external environment, adapting to changes in it. Energy, information, materials are objects of exchange with the external environment through the permeable boundaries of the system. Such a system is not self-sustaining, it depends on external factors (energy, information, materials, etc.). Managers are mostly open systems because all organizations are open systems. The survival of any organization depends on the outside world. All complex systems, as a rule, consist of subsystems. The concept of a subsystem is an important concept in management. The main difference between the subsystems of one system is in functionality, i.e. each subsystem performs a specific function. By dividing the organization into departments, management deliberately creates subsystems within the organization - managerial, personnel, marketing, finance, etc.

Subsystems, in turn, can be composed of smaller subsystems. Since they are interconnected, the malfunctioning of even the smallest subsystem can affect the system as a whole. Understanding that organizations are complex open systems made up of several interconnected subsystems helps to explain why each of the schools of management has proved to be practical only to a limited extent. Each school sought to focus on one subsystem of the organization. The behavioral school was mainly concerned with the social subsystem. The schools of scientific management and science of management are mainly technical subsystems. As a result, they often failed to correctly identify all the major components of an organization. None of the schools seriously thought about the impact of the environment on the organization. It is now a widely held view that external forces can be major determinants of an organization's success, which determine which tool in the management arsenal is likely to be appropriate and most likely to be successful.

Systems approach to operations management

Systems theory was first applied in the exact sciences and in technology. The application of systems theory to management in the late 1950s was the most important contribution of the school of management science. A systems approach is not a set of some guidelines or principles for managers - it is a way of thinking in relation to organization and management. A systematic approach to management considers managerial activity as a system, i.e. as a set of elements interacting with each other in space and time, the functioning of which is aimed at achieving a common goal. The systematic approach includes the following stages of the researcher's activity:

1. Isolation of the object of attention of their total mass of phenomena and processes, the outline of the contour and limits of the system, its main parts, elements, connections with the environment. Identification of the main or important properties of the constituent elements and the system as a whole.

2. Determination of the main criteria for the expedient operation of the system, as well as the main restrictions and conditions for existence.

3. Determination of variants of structures and elements, identification of the main factors influencing the system.

4. Development of the system model.

5. Optimization of the system to achieve the goal.

6 Definition optimal scheme system management.

7. Establishment of reliable feedback based on the results of functioning, determination of the reliability of the system functioning. There are three main principles systems approach:

integrity (the characteristic of the system itself is not reduced to the sum of the characteristics of its constituent elements);

structuredness (the ability to describe the system through the establishment of connections and relationships of its elements);

hierarchy (subordination of elements).

The main concepts of the systems approach can be represented as the following logical sequence:

Purpose - Elements - Relationships of elements - Structure - State of the system - Functioning - Interaction with the environment - Organization - Control action - Result

Management from the standpoint of a systematic approach is the implementation of a set of impacts on an object, selected from a variety of possible impacts based on information about the behavior of the object and the state of the external environment to achieve a given goal.

Types of management decisions

Management decisions can be viewed from different points of view.

1. By degree of influence on the future of the organization they are divided into strategic and tactical. The first determine the main ways of its development, the second - specific ways to move along them. Typically, strategic decisions (say, about entering a new market) are made at the highest level of management, and tactical ones (for example, about repairing equipment) are made at the grassroots.

2. By degree of independence decisions are divided into initiative and prescribed. The former are taken by the management of the organization under the influence of circumstances, the latter specify the decisions coming from above.

3. By scale solutions can be global affecting the entire organization as a whole, and local relating to only one part of it (the side of the activity).

4. Consistent with time horizon can talk about promising decisions, the consequences of which will be felt long time(for example, about investing), and current, focused on the needs of today (about finding funds for paying wages).

5. Depending on duration of the implementation period it is customary to allocate long-term(over 5 years), medium-term(from 1 to 5 years), and short-term(up to one year) decisions.

6. According to the degree of predetermination of the result distinguish probabilistic and deterministic(unique) solutions, which are comparatively rare.

7. According to the degree of regulation allocate contour decisions (provide wide freedom to performers); structured(allow initiative in minor matters); algorithmic, where the initiative is excluded.

8. By direction of the impact of the decision may be external(concerning the environment) or internal.

9. By degree of obligation they are subdivided into directive, advisory and guiding, which depends, for example, on the level, duration, degree of importance.

10. By functional purpose can be identified organizational, coordinating, regulating, activating and controlling solutions.

11. By degree of difficulty decisions are divided into simple, folded and unique.

12. By methods of generating differ formulaic and creative.

13. Depending on number of developers decisions are divided into individual and collective.

14. By latitude coverage are allocated are common and special solutions. The first relate to the same issues for all (for example, the time of the beginning and end of the working day) and introduce an element of stability into the activities of the organization. The second relate to narrow problems inherent in only one subject.

15. From the point of view predestination decisions are divided into programmed and unprogrammed.

16. By way of influencing the object solutions can be divided into straight e and indirect. The first influence directly on him, the second - on the creation of such conditions, under the influence of which he himself will change his behavior in the right direction.

17. By implementation decisions can be related to production, marketing, research, etc.

18. By form solutions are legal and illegal.

20. By the degree of completeness and reliability of the information used allocate:

Decisions made in conditions of complete certainty;

Decisions made under conditions of partial certainty;

Decisions made under conditions of complete uncertainty.

21. By ways of making distinguish intuitive, adaptive and rational solutions.

The nature of control

The nature of modern management is twofold: on the one hand, management is productive labor arising in conditions of combined production with high level specialization of workers, ensuring the connection and unity of the entire production process, and on the other hand, management is an activity of supervision and control. which is based on the opposition between wage labor as a direct producer and the owner of the means of production. Management work involves the fulfillment of socially necessary tasks for the regulation, organization, coordination and control of socio-economic processes.

There are many concepts of a system. Consider the concepts that most fully reveal its essential properties (Fig. 1).

Rice. 1. The concept of a system

"A system is a complex of interacting components."

"A system is a set of connected operating elements."

"A system is not just a collection of units ... but a collection of relationships between these units."

And although the concept of a system is defined in different ways, it is usually understood that a system is a certain set of interrelated elements that form a stable unity and integrity, which has integral properties and patterns.

We can define a system as something whole, abstract or real, made up of interdependent parts.

system any object can be alive and inanimate nature, society, process or set of processes, scientific theory etc., if they define elements that form a unity (integrity) with their connections and interconnections between them, which ultimately creates a set of properties that are unique to this system and distinguish it from other systems (emergence property).

System(from the Greek SYSTEMA, meaning "a whole made up of parts") is a set of elements, connections and interactions between them and the external environment, forming a certain integrity, unity and purposefulness. Almost every object can be considered as a system.

System is a set of material and non-material objects (elements, subsystems) united by some kind of links (information, mechanical, etc.), designed to achieve a specific goal and achieve it in the best possible way. System defined as a category, i.e. its disclosure is made through the identification of the main properties inherent in the system. To study the system, it is necessary to simplify it while retaining the main properties, i.e. build a model of the system.

System can manifest itself as a holistic material object, which is a naturally conditioned set of functionally interacting elements.

An important means of characterizing a system is its properties. The main properties of the system are manifested through the integrity, interaction and interdependence of the processes of transformation of matter, energy and information, through its functionality, structure, connections, external environment.

Property is the quality of the object parameters, i.e. external manifestations of the way in which knowledge about an object is obtained. Properties make it possible to describe system objects. However, they can change as a result of the functioning of the system.. Properties are external manifestations of the process by which knowledge about an object is obtained, it is observed. Properties provide the ability to describe system objects quantitatively, expressing them in units that have a certain dimension. The properties of system objects can change as a result of its action.

There are the following basic properties of the system :

· The system is a collection of elements . Under certain conditions, elements can be considered as systems.

· The presence of significant relationships between elements. Under significant connections are understood as those that naturally, necessarily determine the integrative properties of the system.

· Presence of a specific organization, which is manifested in a decrease in the degree of system uncertainty compared to the entropy of system-forming factors that determine the possibility of creating a system. These factors include the number of elements of the system, the number of significant links that an element may have.

· The presence of integrative properties , i.e. inherent in the system as a whole, but not inherent in any of its elements separately. Their presence shows that the properties of the system, although they depend on the properties of the elements, are not completely determined by them. The system is not reduced to a simple collection of elements; decomposing the system into separate parts, it is impossible to know all the properties of the system as a whole.

· emergence – the irreducibility of the properties of individual elements and the properties of the system as a whole.

· Integrity - this is a system-wide property, which consists in the fact that a change in any component of the system affects all its other components and leads to a change in the system as a whole; and vice versa, any change to the system is reflected in all components of the system.

· Divisibility – it is possible to decompose the system into subsystems in order to simplify the analysis of the system.

· Communication. Any system operates in the environment, it experiences the effects of the environment and, in turn, affects the environment. Relationship between environment and system can be considered one of the main features of the functioning of the system, an external characteristic of the system, which largely determines its properties.

The system is inherent property to develop, adapt to new conditions by creating new links, elements with their own local goals and means to achieve them. Development– explains complex thermodynamic and information processes in nature and society.

· Hierarchy. Under the hierarchy refers to the sequential decomposition of the original system into a number of levels with the establishment of a relationship of subordination of the lower levels to the higher ones. Hierarchy of the system consists in the fact that it can be considered as an element of a system of a higher order, and each of its elements, in turn, is a system.

An important system property is system inertia, which determines the time required to transfer the system from one state to another for given control parameters.

· Multifunctionality - the ability of a complex system to implement a certain set of functions on a given structure, which manifests itself in the properties of flexibility, adaptation and survivability.

· Flexibility - this is the property of the system to change the purpose of functioning depending on the conditions of functioning or the state of subsystems.

· adaptability - the ability of the system to change its structure and choose options for behavior in accordance with the new goals of the system and under the influence of environmental factors. Adaptive system- one in which there is a continuous process of learning or self-organization.

· Reliability – this property of the system to implement the specified functions for a certain period of time with the specified quality parameters.

· Safety – the ability of the system not to cause unacceptable impacts on technical objects, personnel, and the environment during its operation.

· Vulnerability - the ability to receive damage under the influence of external and (or) internal factors.

· Structured - the behavior of the system is determined by the behavior of its elements and the properties of its structure.

· Dynamism is the ability to function in time.

· The presence of feedback.

Any system has a purpose and limitations. The purpose of the system can be described by the objective function U1 = F (x, y, t, ...), where U1 is the extreme value of one of the quality indicators of the system functioning.

System Behavior can be described by the law Y = F(x), which reflects changes at the input and output of the system. This determines the state of the system.

State of the system- this is an instant photograph, or a cut of the system, a stop in its development. It is determined either through input interactions or output signals (results), or through macro parameters, macro properties of the system. This is a set of states of its n elements and links between them. The task of a particular system is reduced to the task of its states, starting from the birth and ending with the death or transition to another system. The real system cannot be in any state. Restrictions are imposed on her condition - some internal and external factors (for example, a person cannot live 1000 years). Possible states of a real system form a certain subdomain Z SD (subspace) in the state space of the system – a set of admissible states of the system.

Equilibrium- the ability of the system in the absence of external disturbing influences or under constant influences to maintain its state for an arbitrarily long time.

Sustainability- this is the ability of the system to return to a state of equilibrium after it has been brought out of this state under the influence of external or internal disturbing influences. This ability is inherent in systems when the deviation does not exceed a certain established limit.

3. The concept of system structure.

System Structure- a set of system elements and links between them in the form of a set. System Structure means the structure, location, order and reflects certain relationships, the relationship of the components of the system, i.e. its structure and does not take into account the set of properties (states) of its elements.

The system can be represented by a simple enumeration of elements, but most often, when studying an object, such a representation is not enough, because it is required to find out what the object is and what ensures the fulfillment of the set goals.

Rice. 2. System structure

The concept of a system element. By definition element- it component complex whole. In our concept, a complex whole is a system that is an integral complex of interrelated elements.

Element- a part of the system that is independent of the whole system and is indivisible under this method selection of parts. The indivisibility of an element is considered as the inexpediency of taking into account its internal structure within the model of a given system.

The element itself is characterized only by its external manifestations in the form of connections and relationships with other elements and the external environment.

The concept of communication. Connection- a set of dependencies of the properties of one element on the properties of other elements of the system. To establish a relationship between two elements means to identify the presence of dependencies of their properties. The dependence of the properties of elements can be one-sided and two-sided.

Relationships- a set of bilateral dependencies of the properties of one element on the properties of other elements of the system.

Interaction- a set of relationships and relationships between the properties of elements, when they acquire the character of mutual assistance to each other.

The concept of the external environment. The system exists among other material or non-material objects that are not included in the system and are united by the concept of "external environment" - objects of the external environment. The input characterizes the impact of the external environment on the system, the output characterizes the impact of the system on the external environment.

In fact, the delineation or identification of a system is the division of a certain area of ​​the material world into two parts, one of which is considered as a system - an object of analysis (synthesis), and the other - as an external environment.

External environment- a set of objects (systems) existing in space and time, which are supposed to have an effect on the system.

External environment is a set of natural and artificial systems for which this system is not a functional subsystem.

Structure types

Let's consider a number of typical structures of systems used in the description of organizational, economic, production and technical objects.

Usually the concept of "structure" is associated with a graphical display of elements and their relationships. However, the structure can also be represented in matrix form, the form of a set-theoretic description, using the language of topology, algebra, and other system modeling tools.

Linear (serial) the structure (Fig. 8) is characterized by the fact that each vertex is connected to two neighboring ones. If at least one element (connection) fails, the structure is destroyed. An example of such a structure is a conveyor.

Ring the structure (Fig. 9) is closed, any two elements have two directions of communication. This increases the speed of communication, makes the structure more tenacious.

Cellular the structure (Fig. 10) is characterized by the presence of redundant connections, which increases the reliability (survivability) of the functioning of the structure, but leads to an increase in its cost.

Multiconnected structure (Fig. 11) has the structure of a complete graph. The reliability of functioning is maximum, the efficiency of functioning is high due to the presence of the shortest paths, the cost is maximum.

starry structure (Fig. 12) has a central node that acts as a center, all other elements of the system are subordinate.

graphovaya structure (Fig. 13) is usually used in the description of production and technological systems.

Network structure (net)- a kind of graph structure, which is a decomposition of the system in time.

For example, a network structure can display the order of operation of a technical system (telephone network, electrical network, etc.), stages of human activity (when manufacturing products - a network diagram, when designing - a network model, when planning - a network model, a network plan, etc. d.).

Hierarchical the structure is most widely used in the design of control systems, the higher the level of the hierarchy, the fewer links its elements have. All elements except the upper and lower levels have both command and subordinate control functions.

Hierarchical structures represent the decomposition of the system in space. All vertices (nodes) and connections (arcs, edges) exist in these structures simultaneously (not separated in time).

Hierarchical structures in which each element of the lower level is subordinate to one node (one vertex) of the higher one (and this is true for all levels of the hierarchy) are called treelike structures (structures type "tree"; structures on which tree-order relations hold, hierarchical structures with strong connections) (Fig. 14, a).

Structures in which an element of a lower level can be subordinated to two or more nodes (vertices) of a higher level are called hierarchical structures with weak connections (Fig. 14, b).

In the form of hierarchical structures, the designs of complex technical products and complexes, the structures of classifiers and dictionaries, the structures of goals and functions, production structures, and organizational structures of enterprises are presented.

In general, the termhierarchy more broadly, it means subordination, the order of subordination of the lowest in position and rank of persons to the highest, arose as the name of the "service ladder" in religion, is widely used to characterize relationships in the apparatus of government, the army, etc., then the concept of hierarchy was extended to any coordinated subordination order of objects.

Thus, in hierarchical structures, only the allocation of levels of subordination is important, and there can be any relationship between levels and components within a level. In accordance with this, there are structures that use the hierarchical principle, but have specific features, and it is worth highlighting them separately.

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF SYSTEMS

System: Definition and classification

The concept of a system is one of the fundamental ones and is used in various scientific disciplines and spheres of human activity. The well-known phrases "information system", "man-machine system", "economic system", "biological system" and many others illustrate the prevalence of this term in various subject areas.

There are many definitions in the literature of what a “system” is. Despite the differences in wording, they all rely to some extent on the original translation of the Greek word systema - a whole made up of parts, connected. We will use the following rather general definition.

System- a set of objects united by links so that they exist (function) as a single whole, acquiring new properties that these objects do not have separately.

The remark about the new properties of the system in this definition is very important feature system that distinguishes it from a simple set of unrelated elements. The presence of new properties in a system that are not the sum of the properties of its elements is called emergence (for example, the performance of the "collective" system is not reduced to the sum of the performance of its elements - members of this team).

Objects in systems can be both material and abstract. In the first case, one speaks of material (empirical) systems; in the second - about abstract systems. Abstract systems include theories, formal languages, mathematical models, algorithms, etc.

Systems. Principles of consistency

To identify systems in the surrounding world, you can use the following principles of consistency.

The principle of external integrity - isolation systems from the environment. The system interacts with the environment as a whole, its behavior is determined by the state of the environment and the state of the entire system, and not by some separate part of it.

System isolation in the environment has its purpose, i.e. the system is characterized by purpose. Other characteristics of the system in the surrounding world are its input, output and internal state.

The input of an abstract system, such as some mathematical theory, is the statement of the problem; the output is the result of solving this problem, and the destination will be the class of problems solved within the framework of this theory.

The principle of internal integrity is the stability of links between parts of the system. The state of systems depends not only on the state of its parts - elements, but also on the state of the connections between them. That is why the properties of the system are not reduced to a simple sum of the properties of its elements; those properties appear in the system that are absent from the elements separately.

The presence of stable links between the elements of the system determines its functionality. Violation of these links can lead to the fact that the system will not be able to perform its assigned functions.

The principle of hierarchy - in the system, subsystems can be distinguished, defining for each of them its own input, output, purpose. In turn, the system itself can be seen as part of a larger systems.

Further division of subsystems into parts will lead to the level at which these subsystems are called elements of the original system. Theoretically, the system can be divided into small parts, apparently indefinitely. However, in practice this will lead to the appearance of elements whose connection with the original system, with its functions, will be difficult to grasp. Therefore, an element of the system is considered to be such smaller parts of it that have some qualities inherent in the system itself.

Important in the study, design and development of systems is the concept of its structure. System Structure- the totality of its elements and stable links between them. To display the structure of the system, graphic notations (languages), block diagrams are most often used. In this case, as a rule, the representation of the system structure is performed at several levels of detail: first, the system's connections with the external environment are described; then a diagram is drawn with the selection of the largest subsystems, then their own diagrams are built for the subsystems, etc.

Such detailing is the result of a consistent structural analysis of the system. Method structural systems analysis is a subset of system analysis methods in general and is used, in particular, in programming engineering, in the development and implementation of complex information systems. The main idea of ​​structural system analysis is a step-by-step detailing of the studied (simulated) system or process, which begins with a general overview of the object of study, and then involves its consistent refinement.

V systems approach to the solution of research, design, production and other theoretical and practical problems, the analysis stage together with the synthesis stage form the methodological concept of the solution. In the study (design, development) of systems, at the stage of analysis, the initial (developed) system is divided into parts in order to simplify it and solve the problem sequentially. At the stage of synthesis, the results obtained, individual subsystems are connected together by establishing links between the inputs and outputs of the subsystems.

It is important to note that the split systems into parts will give different results depending on who and for what purpose performs this partitioning. Here we are talking only about such partitions, the synthesis after which allows us to obtain the original or conceived system. These do not include, for example, the "analysis" of the "computer" system with a hammer and chisel. So, for a specialist implementing an automated information system at an enterprise, information links between enterprise departments will be important; for a specialist in the supply department - links that display the movement of material resources in the enterprise. The result is a variety of options block diagrams systems that will contain various connections between its elements, reflecting a particular point of view and the purpose of the study.

Representation systems, in which the main thing is the display and study of its relations with the external environment, with external systems, is called a representation at the macro level. The representation of the internal structure of the system is a representation at the micro level.

System classification

Classification systems involves the division of the entire set of systems into different groups - classes that have common features. The classification of systems can be based on various features.

In the most general case, two large classes of systems can be distinguished: abstract (symbolic) and material (empirical).

According to the origin of the system, they are divided on natural systems(created by nature), artificial, as well as systems of mixed origin, in which there are both natural elements and elements made by man. Systems, which are artificial or mixed, are created by man to achieve his goals and needs.

Let's give brief characteristics some general types of systems.

Technical system is an interconnected, interdependent complex of material elements that provide a solution to a certain problem. Such systems include a car, a building, a computer, a radio communication system, etc. A person is not an element of such a system, and the technical system itself belongs to the class of artificial ones.

Technological system- a system of rules, norms that determine the sequence of operations in the production process.

Organizational system v general view is a set of people (collectives) interconnected by certain relationships in the process of some activity, created and managed by people. Known combinations of "organizational-technical, organizational-technological system" expand the understanding of the organizational system by means and methods of professional activity of members of organizations.

Other name - organizational and economic the system is used to designate systems (organizations, enterprises) participating in the economic processes of creating, distributing, exchanging material goods.

economic system- a system of productive forces and production relations that develop in the process of production, consumption, distribution of material goods. A more general socio-economic system additionally reflects social ties and elements, including relations between people and collectives, conditions labor activity, rest, etc. Organizational and economic systems operate in the field of production of goods and / or services, i.e. within an economic system. These systems are of the greatest interest as objects of implementation. economic information systems(EIS), which are computerized systems for collecting, storing, processing and disseminating economic information. A private interpretation of the EIS are systems designed to automate the tasks of managing enterprises (organizations).

According to the degree of complexity, simple, complex and very complex (large) systems are distinguished. Simple systems are characterized by a small number of internal connections and the relative ease of mathematical description. Characteristic for them is the presence of only two possible states of operability: in case of failure of the elements, the system either completely loses its operability (the ability to fulfill its purpose), or continues to perform the specified functions in full.

Complex systems have a branched structure, a wide variety of elements and relationships, and many health states (more than two). These systems lend themselves to mathematical description, as a rule, with the help of complex mathematical relationships (deterministic or probabilistic). Complex systems include almost all modern technical systems(TV, machine tool, spaceship, etc.).

Modern organizational and economic systems (large enterprises, holdings, manufacturing, transport, energy companies) are among the very complex (large) systems. The following features are typical for such systems:

the complexity of the appointment and the variety of functions performed;

large system sizes in terms of the number of elements, their interconnections, inputs and outputs;

a complex hierarchical structure of the system, which makes it possible to single out several levels in it with rather independent elements at each of the levels, with their own goals of the elements and features of functioning;

the presence of a common goal of the system and, as a result, centralized control, subordination between elements different levels with their relative autonomy;

the presence in the system of active elements - people and their teams with their own goals (which, generally speaking, may not coincide with the goals of the system itself) and behavior;

the variety of types of relationships between the elements of the system (material, informational, energy connections) and the system with the external environment.

Due to the complexity of the purpose and functioning processes, the construction of adequate mathematical models that characterize the dependences of the output, input and internal parameters for large systems is impossible.

According to the degree of interaction with the external environment, there are open systems and closed systems. A system is called a closed system, any element of which has connections only with the elements of the system itself, i.e. closed system does not interact with the external environment. Open systems interact with the external environment, exchanging matter, energy, information. All real systems are closely or weakly connected with the external environment and are open.

By the nature of the behavior of the system is divided into deterministic and non-deterministic. Deterministic systems are those systems in which the components interact with each other in a precisely defined way. The behavior and state of such a system can be unambiguously predicted. When non-deterministic systems such an unambiguous prediction cannot be made.

If the behavior of the system obeys probabilistic laws, then it is called probabilistic. In this case, the prediction of the system behavior is performed using probabilistic mathematical models. It can be said that probabilistic models are a certain idealization that allows describing the behavior of non-deterministic systems. In practice, classifying a system as deterministic or non-deterministic often depends on the objectives of the study and the details of the consideration of the system.