Askold - Varangian from Rurik’s squad, Kyiv prince in 864-882. (ruled together with Deer).

In the history of the East Slavic world, the 9th century, the middle of which marks the completion of the processes of establishing statehood and the formation of feudal relations, became a very difficult and turning point. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, at that time there were two early state associations: the northern one, with the center in Novgorod, where the Varangian Rurik reigned, and the southern one, with the center in Kyiv. The Kyiv table was occupied by Prince Askold - an outstanding statesman early medieval Europe. It was under his rule that the Kiev state experienced a general rise, confidently entered the world stage, and became an important factor in the then international politics. Askold accepted the title of Kagan, which was perceived by his contemporaries as imperial and testified to the political ambitions of the Kyiv ruler.

Unfortunately, the chronicle information about Askold does not always correspond to reality; it is rather meager and sometimes contradictory. Moreover, Askold’s name is almost always mentioned next to the name of his brother Dir. According to the Tale of Bygone Years, Askold and Dir were warriors of Rurik, Scandinavians by origin. In 862 they captured Kyiv and became Kyiv princes. However, in the more ancient Kiev chronicle there is no information about the arrival of Askold and Dir in Kyiv, it is only mentioned that they reigned there. Historians have good reason to consider Askold and Dir to be the last representatives of the princely dynasty founded by the semi-legendary Kiy. So, back in the 15th century. Polish chronicler Jan Dlugosh, an expert in Russian chronicles, wrote: “After the death of Kiy, Shchek and Khoriv, ​​their sons and nephews ruled in the Russian lands until the inheritance passed to two siblings Askold and Dir.” Most modern researchers share this opinion and consider Askold to be a descendant of Kiy, younger brother Dir, the direct and legal heir to the Kyiv throne.

Military activities. Campaigns against Byzantium

Prince Askold carried out a number of activities that contributed to strengthening Kyiv State. Numerous campaigns were undertaken, the main direction of which was the south and southeast. It is not known exactly in what year Askold came to power, but already in 852-853. his squad took part in the fight against the Arabs in Transcaucasia, and in 864 the Russian army reached the shores of the Caspian Sea. The Kyiv prince paid great attention to the fight against the nomadic Steppe. In the Nikon Chronicle (XVI century) we find a record dated 864 about. the death of Askold’s son: “Oskold’s son was quickly killed by the Bulgarians.” The “Bulgarians” here should be understood as the Turkic-speaking nomads, known as the “blacks,” who roamed the southern borders of Rus'. In 867, Askold moved against the Pechenegs, who began to oust the Hungarians from the Lower Dnieper region. The trip was successful. “...Many Pechenegs Oskold and Dir were beaten,” the chronicler reports. Prince Askold was also concerned about the state of the northern borders: in 866 a victorious campaign against the Krivichi was carried out.

Of greatest importance were the famous campaigns of Prince Askold against the Byzantine Empire and the peace agreements concluded with the Greeks. The first campaign took place in 860. The Kiev army and fleet unexpectedly surrounded Constantinople and forced the imperial administration to conclude a peace treaty. The moment for the lightning strike was chosen very well: in the spring of 860, Emperor Michael of Byzantium, at the head of a 40,000-strong army, went to war with the Arabs, and the Byzantine fleet sailed to the island of Crete to fight pirates. A small garrison remained in the capital, clearly insufficient to defend the city walls. Askold immediately took advantage of foreign policy difficulties and the weakness of the empire. The appearance of a hitherto unprecedented formidable army of Russians seriously frightened the inhabitants of Constantinople. “The people from the North Country, and the tribes rose from the ends of the earth, holding bow and spear; they are cruel and merciless, their voice makes a noise like the sea,” wrote Patriarch Photius of Constantinople in his “District Epistle.” In his second sermon, Photius admitted that Byzantium was unable to repel the “barbarians” - the Rus, who seized “countless riches.” The Greeks were forced to pay a huge indemnity to the Kagan of Kyiv and agreed to pay tribute, which was supposed to go to the maintenance of Russian merchants in Byzantium. According to the Venetian chronicler John the Deacon, the winners returned to Rus' “in triumph.”

The conclusion of a new agreement, also very beneficial for Kyiv, culminated in Rus'’s attack on the Princes’ Islands in the Sea of ​​Marmara in 863. This agreement laid the economic foundations for the stay of Russian merchants and diplomats in the Greek capital.

In 866, Askold again gathered an army and set off on two hundred ships on his third campaign against Constantinople. But this time fortune turned away from the prince - a terrible storm suddenly broke out. Nestor the chronicler in The Tale of Bygone Years gives a semi-legendary story about these events: “The king entered the city with difficulty and prayed all night with Patriarch Photius in the Church of the Holy Mother of God in Blachernae. And with songs they brought out the famous robe of the Most Holy Theotokos, and dipped its floor into the sea. At that time it was quiet, the sea was calm, and suddenly a storm arose with wind, and huge waves scattered the ships of the pagan Russians, and washed them to the shore and broke them so that, as if only a few of them, their troubles were cast out and returned to their own.” “And there was great crying in Kyiv,” states the chronicler. Prince Askold of Kyiv Byzantine

It took Prince Askold several years to build new ships and gather a strong army. In 874, the Russians again moved to Constantinople. But this time the battle did not take place. The Greeks offered Askold peace. A new agreement was concluded that maximally satisfied the interests of the Kyiv side.

The campaigns against Byzantium were great importance. Rus' was recognized as a great power, a worthy opponent of the empire. It firmly established itself on the coast of the Black Sea, which in documents of that time was even called the “Russian Sea.” The weight of the countries of the Mediterranean region was forced to reckon with the new state.

Baptism of Rus'. Mystery Christian name prince

On the steep slope of the Kyiv mountains, at the turn of the road that runs to the Dnieper, there is a rotunda. Any Kiev resident will say that there is Askold’s grave. Once upon a time there was a church on the site of the rotunda and it was called the Church of St. Nicholas. It was built by Askold, the first of the princes of Rus' to accept the new faith - back in the 60s of the 9th century, long before the famous Prince Vladimir the Saint. According to the then tradition, Prince Askold named the name of the church he built in honor of his patron, St. Nicholas, whose name he accepted at baptism.

However, it is with this Christian name of Prince Askold that so many mysteries in our history are connected.

The point is that, according to church tradition The baptismal name was given in honor of the godfather. A godfather Prince Askold should, without a doubt, be either a high church hierarch or a royal figure: after all, we were talking about the prestige of the state. In particular, this is exactly what the Bulgarian Khan Boris did during his baptism in 863. He set the condition that the Byzantine Basileus Michael III be considered his godfather, albeit in absentia, since he, of course, could not be present during the ceremony. And in his honor the Bulgarian Khan was named Mikhail. In a similar way, our prince Vladimir Svyatoslavovich chose the Greek Tsar Vasily II as his godfather, and therefore received his name. Later, Vladimir built the Church of St. Basil - also according to tradition.

But who could be the godfather of Prince Askold and in whose honor did he receive the name Nikolai? After all, the situation from a political point of view was very important: for the first time, the ruler of Rus' accepted Christianity.

If we assume that Askold was baptized by the Greeks - during one of the campaigns, as is traditionally believed, then someone named Nikolai! - did the Kyiv prince recognize him as worthy of being considered his godfather? The analysis shows that at that time in Byzantium there was neither an emperor, nor any of his relatives, nor a patriarch who bore the name Nicholas.

Here it would be appropriate to draw attention to another mystery related to the baptism of Askold.

It is traditionally believed that the baptism of Rus' took place during the time of Prince Vladimir - ten years ago the Orthodox Church celebrated the 1000th anniversary of this significant event. But why is the Christian era in Rus' not counted from the baptism of Prince Askold? It would seem that for the prestige of the Russian church it is advantageous to emphasize that Christianity in our country has more ancient history- for more than a century.

Of course, the baptism of Askold is mentioned in the chronicles, but somehow in passing, and all the glory of the saint of Rus' is attributed to Prince Vladimir.

Many historians agree that there is some kind of mystery here. The only hypothesis that suggests itself is that Prince Vladimir received baptism from Constantinople, and Prince Askold from Rome. Only baptism from the Roman Church, which does not in any way appeal to the prestige of the Eastern Church, can explain the reason for such bias. Apparently, not without the influence of Greek spiritual mentors, any mention of the priority of Rome in the baptism of Rus' was pushed aside by stories about Vladimir's baptism - but already from Constantinople.

True, some may disagree: they say, the Great Schism of the Church into Eastern and Western occurred later - 65 years after Vladimir’s baptism. But in reality, this was already the final break between Constantinople and Rome, and the first schism of the Church took place during the time of Prince Askold, when Nicholas I was the high priest in Rome, and the see of Constantinople was headed by Patriarch Photius, one of the most educated highest hierarchs of the Eastern Church. It was he who first clearly formulated the dogmatic differences between the Eastern and Roman Churches. And it is precisely since then that there has been a deep confrontation and a silent struggle for primacy between both branches of the once united Church. By the way, Constantinople and Rome also competed for the right to be the first to baptize the Slavs.

But where, when and who exactly baptized the first ruler of Kievan Rus?

It seems that one of the keys to unraveling this story may be the Christian name Askold. And also - interesting information in one of the chronicles: “Askold went against the Bulgarians and his son was killed.” Another chronicle also speaks about Dir, and that the brothers went against the Greeks, not the Bulgarians. There is no contradiction here, since by the Greeks our chroniclers understood those Christian peoples who adhered to the Greek rite. That is, the chronicles report the campaign of the Kyiv princes against the baptized Bulgarians. A logical question arises: wasn’t this campaign directly related to the dramatic events that took place in Bulgaria after the introduction of Christianity there?

The Bulgarian Khan Boris had long tried to baptize his state, but this was resisted by numerous opposition - from those hundred pure Bulgarian families who were brought to the Balkans by Khan Asparuh in 679 and who were now afraid to dissolve among the local Slavs if a common faith was adopted for all. However, under the pressure of circumstances - defeats in the wars against the Greeks and against the Franks, famine from a terrible drought and a 40-day earthquake - Bulgaria finally accepted baptism from Constantinople in 863.

There is no doubt: the anti-Christian opposition turned for help to other pagan states, including Rus', which several years before, in 860, became famous for its successful campaign against Constantinople. Apparently, it is precisely the response of the Russian princes to the offer to take part in the war against Christians that our chronicle reports: “Askold and Dir are marching against the Bulgarians...” The chronicler also gives the date of the campaign: in the summer of 867.

However, despite the help of the allies, the Bulgarian pagans were again defeated. Moreover, Askold’s son died in this war. Although it is unlikely that the Russian squad was completely defeated; Most likely, the Bulgarian Khan Boris made peace with the Rus. And it is likely that one of the conditions of the peace treaty was the requirement that the Russian prince, and possibly his squad, accept the new faith, which Bulgaria already adhered to. This would ensure that in the future the Rus would not again support the rebellious Bulgarian pagans.

Consequently, Askold’s baptism could have taken place in Bulgaria, during an unsuccessful campaign in 867. Now another interesting hypothesis arises, which is suggested by the choice of a Christian name for the Russian prince. If we take into account the tradition of that time, it is quite logical to assume that Pope Nicholas I could have been the godfather. And primarily because in 867 in Bulgaria, only a Roman priest could baptize Prince Askold.

It turns out that in 866, angry that the Patriarch Photius of Constantinople did not agree to consecrate an independent archbishop for Bulgaria, Khan Boris drove out the Greek priests and turned to Rome for help. In the autumn of the same year, Pope Nicholas I sent a mission to Bulgaria led by Bishop Formosa of Portoena, who re-baptized the Bulgarians.

If the hypothesis about the baptism of the first ruler of Rus' is correct, then most likely it was Bishop Formosa who performed the necessary rite. At the same time, of course, Askold could demand that the Pope, Nicholas I, be considered his godfather: the proud prince would hardly have agreed that the status of his godfather be lower than that of the Bulgarian khan.

Finally, it is worth noting that, apparently, only one of the brothers, Askold, was baptized, and Dir remained a pagan. This assumption is supported by the fact that the brothers are buried in different places. Askold - as a Christian - was buried on the site of the church he built; This was also the custom among Russian princes later, but Dir, who remained faithful to the Russian gods, was buried according to the old Russian tradition, most likely burned, and then the urn with the ashes was buried. The chronicler Nestor reports that Dirov’s grave is behind St. Orina, that is, somewhere near the Church of St. Irene.

Death

Prince Askold died tragically in 882 as a result of a conspiracy between the reactionary anti-Christian elite and the Ladoga governor Oleg, who became the ruler of Northern Rus' in 979, after the death of Prince Rurik. Formally, Rurik’s young son Igor sat on the prince’s table, and Oleg was only a regent. However, the clever and unscrupulous regent was not going to be content with the role of the Ladoga Prince of Novgorod. He was attracted to Kyiv and distant Constantinople. Three years after the death of Rurik, he organized a campaign to the South. In 882, having gathered squads of Varangians, Chuds, Slovenians, Meri, Vesi and Krivichi, Oleg moved along the ancient path “from the Varangians to the Greeks.” On the way, he captured the cities of Smolensk and Lyubech and installed his governors there (previously these cities were subordinate to Kyiv).

Kyiv stood in the way of the conqueror. “And she came to the Kyiv mountains, and Oleg took him away, as Askold and Dir were princes, and buried her in the boats, and left the other behind, and he himself came, carrying Igor as a child... And she came to Askold and Dir, saying, “I am a guest” , we go to the Greeks from Olga and from Igor Knyazhich. Yes, he came to us with his family... And Oleg spoke to Askold and Dirov: “You are not a prince of the family, but I am a prince of the family, and carried out Igor: And behold, there is a son of Rurik,” says the Kiev chronicler. After this, Oleg ordered the death of Askold and Dir. “And Prince Oleg sat down in Kyiv.” From that moment on, Kyiv became the capital of united Rus', “the mother of Russian cities.”

There is every reason to believe that the events of 882 were carefully planned and organized by the boyar opposition. If not for this, Oleg would hardly have been able to capture the well-fortified capital of Southern Rus'. It is also possible that anti-Christian circles, dissatisfied with the prince’s policies, themselves called Oleg the pagan to Kyiv. With the death of Askold, all his endeavors went to waste. Rus' was thrown back. A long and dramatic period of pagan reaction began. The change of dynasty also led to the separation of some “tribal” possessions from Kyiv and a deterioration in relations with Byzantium.

Prince Askold was buried at the site of his martyrdom - in the area of ​​​​the Hungarian tract, which has since been called Askold's grave. After 50 years, Princess Olga built the Church of St. Nicholas there (under this name Askold took holy baptism). Later a convent was built there, and in the 12th century. - male. In 1810, a small stone church was erected on Askold’s grave, which in 1934 was converted into a park pavilion. In 1998, the Church of St. Nicholas was rebuilt and now it belongs to the Greek Catholic Church.

Historiography according to Askold

In 1919, Academician A. A. Shakhmatov connected Prince Askold with the Southern Ilmen region (with its center in Staraya Russa). According to his hypothesis, Rusa was the original capital of the ancient country. And from this “most ancient Rus'...soon after” 839, the movement of Scandinavian Rus' to the south began, leading to the founding of the “young Russian state” in Kyiv around 840. In 1920, academician S. F. Platonov noted that “future research will collect... best material to clarify and strengthen A. A. Shakhmatov’s hypothesis about the Varangian center on the southern bank of Ilmen.” The prominent historian of the Russian diaspora G.V. Vernadsky also connected Prince Askold with Staraya Russa.

B. A. Rybakov put forward a bold assumption about the presence in Ancient Rus'"Askold's Chronicles". His point of view was supported by M. Yu. Braichevsky in his work “The Establishment of Christianity in Rus',” where he tried to reconstruct the “Askold Chronicle,” fragments of which, in edited form, allegedly formed the basis of the “Tale of Bygone Years.”

The name Askold, according to most researchers, comes from the Old Icelandic Haskuldr or Hoskuldr. According to another version, the name has local, Slavic roots. B. A. Rybakov believed that the name Oskold could come from the ancient self-name of the Scythians - Skolote.

In 2010, V.V. Fomin considered it possible to admit that with Old Russian Russia (the center of Staraya Russa) “Askold and Dir were connected, forced to leave the Ilmen region as soon as Rurik established himself there, representing Varangian Rus', which first settled in Ladoga”

Hypotheses

Askold and Dir, who according to legend were killed by Oleg together, were buried in different places: “And they killed Askold and Dir, took them to the mountain and buried Askold on the mountain, which is now called Ugorskaya, where is now Olmin’s courtyard; on that grave Olma erected the Church of St. Nicholas; and Dirov’s grave is behind the Church of St. Irene.” According to one version, this indicates an artificial connection in the chronicle of Askold and Dir, which may have occurred due to an incorrect reading of the Scandinavian spelling of Askold's name - Hoskuldr or under the influence of local legends about Dir and his grave.



History knows several versions of the origin of the Kyiv princes. Preference is given to the classical chronicle story of the “calling of the Varangians.” According to ancient chronicles, the Varangians, Scandinavian tribal leaders, were the leaders of Russian squads in wartime. One of these leaders is called Rurik, the son of the Norwegian king and Umila, the daughter of the Novgorod elder Gostomysl. Called by the Novgorod people to reign, he came with his squad to the region of Lake Ladoga and, according to the chronicle, began to rule in Novgorod from 862, and his warriors - in other cities of the Russian land.

It should be said that the Varangians were in a privileged position: during the campaign they were entitled to a large share of the booty, the prince consulted with them, while the Slav warriors did the rest of the work. Inozemtsev was also defended by the law, according to which a large fine was imposed for killing or insulting a Varangian. Historians explain this by the fact that, being Varangians by origin, the Kyiv princes recruited their squad mainly from their distant relatives. An additional number of soldiers were recruited from the Russians. The term “favorite” did not yet exist, but the chronicle term “youths-friends,” with which the prince addressed his senior warriors (Varangians), best characterizes their close position. For the Russians, the younger warriors, there were other terms: “gridi”, “young children”, etc. The favorites in the sense of getting closer to the prince were mainly the closest relatives (relatives and cousins, wives, uncles) or the strongest, smartest or cunning warriors. That is, the attention of a high-ranking person could be won by having family ties with her and (or) outstanding personal qualities.

Such people occupied a privileged position, became the prince’s dinner companions, and enjoyed his trust. They could become advisers, governors, and went on campaigns of conquest to collect tribute for the prince in “their own and foreign lands.” Thus, Askold and Dir, who came with Rurik, were sent by him on a campaign against Constantinople. Representatives of the Kyiv prince in such cases had the authority on his behalf and on behalf of the people ruled by him to conclude agreements on cooperation and non-aggression with the Byzantine emperors. Of course, only the best of the best could complete this mission, those whom the prince trusted as he trusted himself.

Since in those days the power and security of the prince depended on his personal qualities and the loyalty of his people, favorites were appointed governors of the cities under his control or rulers of the young children of the deceased prince, such as Oleg.

The fate of Rurik's close associates - Oleg, Askold and Dir, who also ruled in the lands of Kievan Rus - is most fully reflected in Russian chronicles and gives some idea of ​​the origins of Russian favoritism. Life in Ancient Rus' was not cloudless, and bloody struggles for power, intrigues and conflicts between the “newcomers” and the “local nobility” also took place then, as many centuries later, under Ivan the Terrible or the first Romanovs.

Oleg (? - 912)

Oleg, a relative and warrior of Rurik, arrived with him to Lake Ladoga. The year of his birth is unknown. But it is known that the prince brought him closer to himself and Oleg’s name is mentioned in the palace books of the Byzantine emperors along with the “king of the Slavs” and his nephews Igor and Yakan, as well as other Varangians from the “inner circle”. Oleg was distinguished by enviable health, heroic strength and dexterity - this epic image is reinforced archaeological finds. It is known that the two-handed sword weighed about 25 kg, and in battle they had to be wielded skillfully.

A Viking battle ax could weigh 15 or 20 kg, and if you add to this armor, albeit leather, but shod with iron, a helmet and metal leggings (special boots that protected the warrior’s legs from ankle to knee), then it turns out that an ordinary warrior must was carrying at least 40 - 50 kg almost constantly. The warrior must be hardy; he was also required to have military ingenuity and unconditional devotion to the prince. This is exactly what the future Novgorod or Kiev prince should be - truly “first among equals.”

Why Rurik did not send Oleg on a campaign against Constantinople instead of Askold and Dir is a mystery to historians. Perhaps at the beginning of his reign, the experienced warriors Askold and Dir enjoyed great confidence in him. Perhaps Oleg’s military skill was required on the not very hospitable Novgorod soil - the details remain unknown. Most likely, during the first campaign of Constantinople, Oleg was, according to the standards of that time, too young and did not prove himself to be such a skillful diplomat as, for example, Askold. It is possible that this hostility towards Askold and Dir, who “beat him by half a length,” haunted him throughout the years of Rurik’s reign and ultimately became the real reason the death of the Kyiv rulers. The version that the “eternally second” Oleg was burdened by his subordinate position can be considered controversial. Nevertheless, his active participation in the Constantinople campaigns, the suppression of the Novgorod uprising of Vadim and the decisive fight against the nomads indicate an aggressive and active character. The fact that Oleg, by common consent, called himself a representative princely family, testifies to the certain rights he had to the throne or vassal rule and ambitions that were ignored by both Rurik himself and the Novgorod aristocracy.

Before the capture of Kyiv, according to the chronicle, Oleg undertook military raids on the territories of the Lyubech and Smolensk Slavs. These attacks were successful, just like the invasion of Kyiv, and greatly strengthened Oleg’s position among the squad as “first among others.” “Familiarization” raids of Russians on Constantinople in the 860s. become almost a tradition during his reign. Having subjugated Kyiv's closest neighbors - the Radimichi, the Drevlyans and the Northerners, Oleg not only expanded the territory under his control, but also significantly replenished the Kyiv treasury. He fought tirelessly against the rebellious Tivertsi and Ulichs throughout his reign. True, the Ugrians who besieged the capital of Kievan Rus became an exception to general rule. Not only could they not be defeated, but they even had to pay them a ransom, and only after that they went home.

Interestingly, having no serious competitors in Kyiv lands Oleg was incredibly lucky. His dream of an independent reign can be considered fulfilled. Moreover, in 907 and 911. he made two victorious campaigns against Constantinople. And on his own behalf, among his warriors, he signed an agreement on indemnity and further cooperation with the Byzantine emperor.

Of course, the number of Oleg’s warriors indicated in the chronicle (80,000 people) seems fantastic to modern historians, but there is no doubt that his army was truly large and frighteningly combat-ready.

In this regard, the textbook story about “Oleg’s cunning” seems to be a characteristic illustration of his tactical ingenuity and military valor. The Greeks, who blocked the port waters with metal chains, also showed military cunning and hoped to get rid of the greedy conquerors for a long time. But Oleg, who ordered the ships to be carried by hand to the gates of Constantinople in one night, carried out a real “psychic attack”, against which the Byzantines could not resist. And the main acquisition of Kievan Rus in this campaign was not so much a huge tribute, but the conclusion of an agreement that allowed Russian merchants to trade without paying duties and customs duties (due to which the treasury of Byzantium was regularly replenished). This was a sign of an economic strategy, albeit in its initial form. In the peace agreement of 911, Oleg is called the “Grand Duke.” This treaty “on eternal peace and non-aggression” also had great diplomatic significance, highly raising the prestige of Kievan Rus abroad.
According to one chronicle version, Oleg died in 912, according to another - in 922. All sources mention the poetic version of Oleg’s death “from his horse,” but attribute to it a completely prosaic reason - poisoning snake venom. Nevertheless, in general, a non-mystic, insightful and rather pragmatic Varangian in the epics of the 12th - 14th centuries. is identified with the invincible prince-sorcerer Volkh Vseslavyevich, which testifies to the respect that his fellow tribesmen felt for his outstanding mind and physical strength.

Askold (? - 882) and Dir (? - 882)

Askold and Dir, according to chronicles, were Rurik’s warriors. And although the history of the first Kyiv princes has many discrepancies, it is known for certain that they were not his relatives, but enjoyed great confidence of the Novgorod prince. It was them who he sent at the head of the conquest campaign against Constantinople in 864 - 866. (approximate dating by chronicle). According to one version, the storm prevented Askold and Dir from reaching the Byzantine capital, and, fearing the prince’s wrath, they decided not to return to Novgorod, but to become princes themselves in the land of the glades. In those days, the glades did not have their own princes, the chronicler reports, but they paid tribute to the Khazars and suffered oppression from them. Askold and Dir offered protection to the glades in exchange for the “payment” that had previously gone to the Khazars, and they began to rule.
According to another version, from the very beginning they did not intend to attack Constantinople, since Askold was allegedly already a Christian. And from the very beginning, when setting out on a campaign, they hoped to become independent princes, and not “serve under command.” In the palace book of the Byzantine emperors, among the Varangians and Rus who made the campaign, their names are not mentioned, which means that they did not reach Constantinople. In Kyiv, the people under their rule lived peacefully and calmly and were satisfied with their rulers.

This version is contradicted by the absence of any repressive measures on the part of Rurik towards his “boyars” who violated the order.

It is known that in Novgorod the local authorities were not happy with the rule of the Varangians. The chronicles mention the uprising of Vadim (obviously a representative of the Russian aristocracy), killed on the orders of Rurik. After the suppression of the uprising, part of the Novgorod nobility fled to Kyiv land under the protection of Askold and Dir, and this greatly outraged Rurik and his governor, one of whom was the famous Oleg.
Polish chronicles consider both Askold and Dir to be Rurik’s younger relatives, who had significantly less rights to the Kiev throne than Rurik’s son Igor and his other relative, Oleg. Therefore, their murder by Oleg remained unpunished, as it served as retribution for autocracy.

Non-classical chronicles, for example Joachim's, known only in the retelling of an 18th century historian. V. Tatishchev, claim that Askold and Dir did not reign at the same time, but one after the other, and Askold was a Varangian prince, and Dir was a Slavic prince, and his name was translated as “beast.” Similar information can be gleaned from the notes of Arab travelers. early Middle Ages, but this version remains controversial.

All sources agree that after the death of Rurik (in 879), the peaceful existence of the Kyiv princes was threatened by another favorite of Rurik, Oleg, who gradually concentrated power and influence in his hands in Novgorod lands. Three years later, Oleg, who became regent-co-ruler under the young Igor, appeared at the gates of Kyiv. According to chronicle sources, the rich Kiev land attracted him for a long time, and the convenient location of the city near famous trade routes served as an incentive to unite the Novgorod and Kyiv lands under his leadership. Of course, Oleg identified his interests with the interests of the Rurik family. For this purpose, any means seemed acceptable to him: having lured Askold and Dir out of the city walls by deception, he treacherously killed them in the presence of his squad and the young prince.
The peace and tranquility that then reigned in the Kyiv lands is also evidenced by the fact that Askold and Dir came to Oleg unarmed and without even light armor under their clothes, which made Oleg’s task easier. Such ingenuousness, which cost them their lives, is explained by their confidence in their own safety and the influence they enjoyed in the territory under their control.
Before executing the unarmed Kyiv rulers, Oleg announced that he was punishing them by right, since they, not being of a princely family, had seized power in the city and the surrounding area. Power, as Oleg explained (according to the chronicler), should belong to the hereditary princes, i.e. Igor or him, Oleg. It is interesting that neither the vigilantes nor the Kiev people stood up for Askold and Dir, and this proves that they considered Oleg’s arguments correct. After which a certain Olma, whom different sources Considered either a member of Askold's warriors or a local merchant, he buried the dead. Moreover, a church was erected over Askold’s grave, but not over Dir’s grave. Historians see this as a justification for the fact that Askold had already been baptized into Christianity by that time (they even call his given name Nikolai), and Dir remained a pagan, like many other ordinary Varangians and Kyiv princes.

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Kyiv princes Askold and Dir came to Rus' together with Rurik in 862. For two years they were side by side with the Novgorod prince? however, in 864 they left Novgorod and went to Constantinople to serve the Byzantine king. Going down the river, Askold and Dir on this journey discovered the Dnieper on the banks of the river small town, which, according to the chroniclers, did not belong to anyone. The founders of the city died long ago, and the inhabitants of the city, having no ruler, paid tribute to the Khazars. Askold and Dir captured this city, as well as the lands adjacent to it. This town was called Kyiv. Thus, by 864, a situation arose when the Varangians formed two control centers in Rus': in the north in Novgorod, under the control of Rurik, in the south in Kyiv, ruled by Askold and Dir.

Campaigns against Byzantium

Ancient Byzantium, where the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir from Novgorod went, was a large state, whose service was considered an honor by many. For this purpose, Rurik’s comrades-in-arms left Novgorod, and only the city of Kyiv, encountered on their way, changed their plans. It is worth noting that ancient Byzantium highly appreciated the capabilities of the Varangians. Northern warriors were gladly accepted into service in the Byzantine army, because their discipline and military qualities were valued.

Having captured Kyiv, princes Askold and Dir became bolder and declared that Byzantium was now an enemy for Kyiv. The Varangians, being experienced sailors, under the command of Askold and Dir, set off along the Dnieper on a campaign against Byzantium. In total, the military escort consisted of 200 ships. It was from this campaign that all subsequent campaigns against Byzantium began.

March on Constantinople

Askold and Dir with their troops descended the Dnieper to Black Sea and there they besieged the city of Constantinople. The campaigns against Byzantium had just begun; the Greeks for the first time encountered a new enemy at the walls of their city, whom they dubbed the Scythians. The Prince of Byzantium, Michael 3, being on a military campaign at that time, hastily returned to his capital as soon as rumors reached him about the danger looming over the city. In Constantinople itself they did not hope for victory over the Scythians. Here they relied on a miracle, since the forces were unequal. That's what happened. In the temple of the city there was a shrine - the icon “Robe of the Mother of God”, which was considered the intercessor of the city and saved it more than once in difficult situations. Byzantine Patriarch Photius, in front of everyone, lowered the icon into the sea, which was quiet. But literally immediately a terrible storm arose. Almost the entire enemy fleet was destroyed, only a few ships managed to reach Kyiv. Thus, ancient Byzantium was saved from the invasion of Askold and Dir, but the campaigns did not stop there.

Confrontation with Novgorod

In 879, Prince Rurik died, leaving behind a minor heir - Prince Igor, whose guardianship was taken over by his relative Oleg. Having become a ruler, Oleg decided to annex to his possessions southern lands and went on a campaign against Kyiv in 882. On the way to Kyiv, Oleg captured the cities of Smolensk and Lyubech. Foreseeing that princes Askold and Dir, who have a large army and are not inferior to him in military skills, would not give up Kyiv without a fight, Prince Oleg, acting on behalf of Igor, resorted to deception. Sailing to Kyiv, he left almost his entire army on the ships, and he introduced himself as a merchant who had arrived from distant countries. He invited the princes of Kyiv to his place. Askold and Dir went to meet the eminent guest, but were captured by Oleg’s soldiers and killed.

So Oleg, on behalf of Igor, began to rule Kiev, saying that from now on Kyiv was destined to be the mother of Russian cities. Thus, for the first time, the northern and southern Russian lands were united within one state, whose name was Kievan Rus.

As was written in the previous article about the formation of the first settlements on the territory of Kyiv, signs of urban planning began to appear approximately in the 5th-6th centuries. There is no exact information about who founded the city, but most theories say that the first rulers of Kyiv were immigrants from Scandinavia - the Varangians. The intensive growth of the city was facilitated by a very favorable geographical location (the famous trade route from the “Varangians to the Greeks” along the Dnieper), as well as the growing power of the squad (troops) of the Polyan tribe (the center of which was Kyiv). It was the military superiority of the Polyanian lands that helped unite around Kyiv the nearby East Slavic tribes, most of them located on the territory of modern Ukraine. All interesting information about the first Kyiv princes is available during our.

Askold and Dir. The first princes of Kyiv, whose names are mentioned in the chronicles, are the princes Askold and Dir, who ruled Kiev between 860 and 880. Reliably little is known about this period, as well as about how the princes “settled” in Kyiv, but theories of their origin also converge on Scandinavian roots, and some scientists claim that Askold and Dir were warriors of Rurik. There is an opinion that Askold could be a descendant of Kiy, and Dir is only his middle name or nickname. The first military campaign of the Kyiv army against Tsargorod (Constantinople) in Byzantium was carried out at the same time, which indicates the already certain power of the Kyiv lands.

Oleg in Kyiv. According to one of the main sources on the basis of which we can build a chronology of the development of Kyiv - this is the Tale of Bygone Years, in 882, Prince Oleg entered Kyiv and killed Askold (Askold and Dir) and began to rule Kiev and all the lands under his control. Oleg was most likely a relative of the legendary Rurik. According to the general theory, after the death of Rurik, taking with him his son, still a young Igor, Oleg recruited an army and began to descend in a southern direction. After the conquest of Smolensk and Lyubech, Oleg came to Kyiv, and, having killed the local princes, began to rule here. Oleg liked the new city and its location, and he decided to settle in it, thereby allegedly connecting his northern lands with the new ones, Kyiv, and making them the capital.

Oleg ruled Kiev for more than 30 years. During this time, he significantly increased the possessions of his new power - he annexed the Drevlyans, Radimichi and Northerners to Kyiv. During the victorious campaigns against Byzantium in 907 and further in 911, some of the first written agreements were signed between Constantinople and Kiev, and preferential rights were established for the trade of Russian merchants. Oleg received the title of Grand Duke and is considered the founder of the Rurik family of princes of Kyiv. The legend about Oleg's death from a snake bite also gained popular popularity.

Askold and Dir are legendary princes who ruled the city of Kyiv at the end of the 9th century, converted to Christianity and laid the foundations of ancient Russian statehood. This is the generally accepted version, but there are many contradictions in it.

Sources

The information that we draw from the history of Ancient Rus' is collected mostly in the Tale of Bygone Years, as well as in later chronicles, which largely rely on the first. The reliability of such documents is questioned by modern historians: and this is not only due to chronological inaccuracies or mixing of facts.
The chronicles were repeatedly rewritten, and, accordingly, errors gradually crept into them, or even worse - deliberate distortions of events in favor of one or another. political idea. L.N. Gumilyov believed, for example, that the chronicler Nestor viewed history as a policy facing the past, and therefore remade it in his own way.
However, if you have independent sources of information - not only ancient Russian chronicles, but Byzantine, European or Arabic documents, then you can general outline restore the picture of events of a bygone era.

From the Varangians to the Khazars

The Tale of Bygone Years reports that Askold and Dir were Varangian warriors of the Novgorod prince Rurik, who begged him to go on a campaign against Constantinople (Constantinople). But in the Nikon Chronicle they appear as enemies of Rurik: dissatisfied with the division of the volosts, the warriors participate in the uprising organized against him.
One way or another, going down the Dnieper, the Varangians saw on a hill the glorious city founded by Kiy. Having learned that there was no ruler in the city, and that its population was paying tribute to the Khazars, they decided to settle there and reign.

The Ustyug Chronicle says that Askold and Dir were “neither the tribe of a prince nor a boyar, and Rurik would not give them a city or a village.” Apparently, the campaign to Constantinople was only a pretext, and the ultimate goal was to obtain lands and a princely title.
Historian Yu. K. Begunov claims that Askold and Dir, having betrayed Rurik, turned into Khazar vassals. There is no information about the defeat of the Khazars by the Novgorod squad (and it was not easy to do this), which means that this version has the right to life - otherwise the Khazars (and their mercenaries) would not have allowed the Varangians to dispose of their patrimony so easily. But, perhaps, there was also an agreement between both parties - in the person of the disgraced Varangians, the Kaganate saw serious help in the confrontation with the powerful Rurik.

March to Constantinople

In addition to the Tale of Bygone Years, we learn about the raids of the Rus (as the Greeks called the peoples living north of the Black Sea) on Constantinople from Byzantine and Italian chroniclers, which gives the information more reliability. True, sources differ in determining the dates: the Tale indicates the year 866, and according to Byzantine data it is 860-861, however, making allowances for the inaccurate chronology of the Tale, we can assume that we are talking about the same events.

The Byzantines, exhausted from the war with the Arabs, did not expect an attack from the sea by the Rus. According to various sources, from 200 to 360 ships approached the shores of Constantinople. The Byzantines had little idea where this army came from, but the chronicler Nestor speaks of the troops of Askold and Dir, who plundered the environs of the Byzantine capital and threatened to take Constantinople itself.
Only thanks to the fervent prayer of Tsar Michael and Patriarch Photius, as well as the robe Holy Mother of God, which was soaked in the sea, a miracle happened: a storm suddenly broke out, and the huge waves that rose and a strong wind scattered

ships of the “godless Russians” - few were able to return home. Christians or Jews?

Some sources report that after the defeat of the Rus, Byzantium established relations with the young Old Russian state and began to conduct its missionary activities there. Filaret Gumilevsky writes that “according to the undoubted voice of history, Kievan Rus listened to the gospel preaching under the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir.”
However, Academician A. A. Shakhmatov claims that in the more ancient chronicles telling about the campaign against Constantinople there is no mention of Askold and Dir - their names were inserted later, nothing is said about them either in Byzantine or Arab sources. Moreover, given the possible connections of the Kyiv princes with the Jewish Kaganate, it is premature to talk about their Christianity: they had a much greater chance of converting to Judaism.

Murder

After the death of Rurik, Oleg became the guardian of his young son Igor and, in fact, the head of Novgorod - the same one who took revenge " foolish Khazars" He remembered the disgraced Varangians, and therefore the campaign against Kyiv he organized in 882 was aimed at displacing the illegal power of the impostors. Kyiv at that time turned into a hotbed of unrest - dissatisfied residents of the Novgorod lands constantly flocked there, and therefore immediate measures were required.

However, according to the 15th century Polish historian Janusz Dlugosz, who largely retells ancient Russian chronicles, Askold and Dir were the hereditary rulers of Kyiv, descendants of Kiy, and moreover, brothers, and therefore the overthrow of the Kyiv princes looks not only treacherous, but also illegal. But here one can discern Dlugosz’s desire to show the validity of Polish claims to Kyiv, since, in his opinion, Kiy is one of the heirs of the Polish dynasty.

Was there Dir?

According to the chronicle, Askold was buried at the place of his death - the high right bank of the Dnieper, but Dir's grave was located behind the Irininsky Monastery - not far from the current Golden Gate. They are separated by three kilometers: a strange fact: co-rulers (or even brothers) who died on the same day are buried in different places!

It should be noted that some researchers suggest that Askold and Dir ruled in Kyiv in different times, but there are also those who believe that Askold and Dir are one person. In the Old Norse version of the name "Haskuldr", the last two letters could be separated into a separate word, and eventually into an independent person.
Also, Byzantine sources, describing the siege of Constantinople by the Rus, talk about one military leader, although without naming his name. Historian B. A. Rybakov gives us an explanation: “The personality of Prince Dir is not clear to us. One feels that his name is artificially attached to Askold, because when describing them joint action, the grammatical form gives us a single, and not a double, number, as it should be when describing the joint actions of two persons.”

The history of the Kyiv princes Askold and Dir leaves more questions than it answers. Chronicles, as the main source of information, unfortunately, suffer from inaccuracies or direct distortion of facts, and archeology is not able to show us a complete and reliable picture of the life of Ancient Rus' in the 9th century. Of course, we still have something to learn, but much will remain hidden under the veil of the past millennium.