Rotation of the Earth around its axis

The rotation of the Earth is one of the movements of the Earth, which reflects many astronomical and geophysical phenomena occurring on the surface of the Earth, in its bowels, in the atmosphere and oceans, as well as in the near space.

The rotation of the Earth explains the change of day and night, the visible daily movement of celestial bodies, the rotation of the swing plane of a load suspended on a thread, the deflection of falling bodies to the east, etc. Due to the rotation of the Earth, bodies moving along its surface are affected by the Coriolis force, the influence of which is manifested in undermining of the right banks of rivers in the Northern Hemisphere and the left - in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth and in some features of the atmospheric circulation. The centrifugal force generated by the rotation of the Earth partly explains the differences in the acceleration of gravity at the equator and the Earth's poles.

To study the patterns of the Earth's rotation, two coordinate systems are introduced with a common origin at the Earth's center of mass (Fig. 1.26). The earth system X 1 Y 1 Z 1 participates in the daily rotation of the Earth and remains motionless relative to the points of the earth's surface. The XYZ star coordinate system is not related to the daily rotation of the Earth. Although its beginning moves in world space with some acceleration, participating in the annual movement of the Earth around the Sun in the Galaxy, but this movement of relatively distant stars can be considered uniform and rectilinear. Therefore, the motion of the Earth in this system (as well as any celestial object) can be studied according to the laws of mechanics for an inertial frame of reference. The XOY plane is aligned with the ecliptic plane, and the X axis is directed to the vernal equinox point γ of the initial epoch. It is convenient to take the main axes of the Earth's inertia as the axes of the Earth's coordinate system; another choice of axes is also possible. The position of the earth system relative to the star system is usually determined by three Euler angles ψ, υ, φ.

Fig.1.26. Coordinate systems used to study the rotation of the Earth

Basic information about the rotation of the Earth is provided by observations of the daily motion of celestial bodies. The rotation of the Earth occurs from west to east, i.e. counterclockwise as viewed from the Earth's North Pole.

The average inclination of the equator to the ecliptic of the initial epoch (angle υ) is almost constant (in 1900 it was equal to 23° 27¢ 08.26² and increased by less than 0.1² during the 20th century). The line of intersection of the Earth's equator and the ecliptic of the initial epoch (the line of nodes) slowly moves along the ecliptic from east to west, moving 1° 13¢ 57.08² per century, as a result of which the angle ψ changes by 360° in 25,800 years (precession). The instantaneous axis of rotation of the OR always almost coincides with the smallest axis of inertia of the Earth. The angle between these axes, according to observations made since the end of the 19th century, does not exceed 0.4².

The period of time during which the Earth makes one rotation around its axis relative to some point in the sky is called a day. The points that determine the length of the day can be:

the point of the vernal equinox;

The center of the visible disk of the Sun, displaced by annual aberration ("true Sun");

· "Mean Sun" - a fictitious point, the position of which in the sky can be theoretically calculated for any moment of time.

Three different periods of time determined by these points are called sidereal, true solar and mean solar days, respectively.

The speed of the Earth's rotation is characterized by the relative value

where Pz is the duration of the earth day, T is the duration of a standard day (atomic), which is equal to 86400s;

- angular velocities corresponding to terrestrial and standard days.

Since the value of ω changes only in the ninth - eighth decimal place, then the values ​​of ν are of the order of 10 -9 -10 -8 .

The Earth makes one complete revolution around its axis relative to the stars in a shorter period of time than relative to the Sun, since the Sun moves along the ecliptic in the same direction as the Earth rotates.

The sidereal day is determined by the period of rotation of the Earth around its axis with respect to any star, but since the stars have their own and, moreover, very complex movement, it was agreed that the beginning of the sidereal day should be counted from the moment of the upper climax of the vernal equinox, and the interval the time between two successive upper climaxes of the vernal equinox located on the same meridian.

Due to the phenomena of precession and nutation, the relative position of the celestial equator and the ecliptic is constantly changing, which means that the location of the vernal equinox on the ecliptic changes accordingly. It has been established that a sidereal day is 0.0084 seconds shorter than the actual period of the Earth's daily rotation and that the Sun, moving along the ecliptic, hits the vernal equinox point earlier than it hits the same place relative to the stars.

The Earth, in turn, revolves around the Sun not in a circle, but in an ellipse, so the movement of the Sun seems uneven to us from the Earth. In winter, the true solar day is longer than in summer. For example, at the end of December they are 24 hours 04 minutes 27 seconds, and in mid-September - 24 hours 03 minutes. 36sec. The average unit of a solar day is considered to be 24 hours 03 minutes. 56.5554 seconds sidereal time.

The angular velocity of the Earth relative to the Sun, due to the ellipticity of the Earth's orbit, depends on the time of year. The Earth orbits the slowest when it is at perihelion, the farthest point of its orbit from the Sun. As a result, the duration of the true solar day is not the same throughout the year - the ellipticity of the orbit changes the duration of the true solar day according to a law that can be described by a sinusoid with an amplitude of 7.6 minutes. and a period of 1 year.

The second reason for the unevenness of the day is the inclination of the earth's axis to the ecliptic, leading to the apparent movement of the Sun up and down from the equator during the year. The right ascension of the Sun near the equinoxes (Fig. 1.17) changes more slowly (since the Sun moves at an angle to the equator) than during the solstices, when it moves parallel to the equator. As a result, a sinusoidal term with an amplitude of 9.8 minutes is added to the duration of a true solar day. and a period of six months. There are other periodic effects that change the length of the true solar day and depend on time, but they are small.

As a result of the joint action of these effects, the shortest true solar days are observed on March 26-27 and September 12-13, and the longest - on June 18-19 and December 20-21.

To eliminate this variability, the mean solar day is used, tied to the so-called mean Sun - a conditional point moving evenly along the celestial equator, and not along the ecliptic, like the real Sun, and coinciding with the center of the Sun at the time of the vernal equinox. The period of revolution of the average Sun in the celestial sphere is equal to the tropical year.

The mean solar day is not subject to periodic changes, like the true solar day, but its duration changes monotonically due to the change in the period of the Earth's axial rotation and (to a lesser extent) with the change in the length of the tropical year, increasing by about 0.0017 seconds per century. Thus, the duration of the mean solar day at the beginning of 2000 was equal to 86400.002 SI seconds (the SI second is determined using the intra-atomic periodic process).

A sidereal day is 365.2422/366.2422=0.997270 mean solar days. This value is a constant ratio of sidereal and solar time.

Mean solar time and sidereal time are related by the following relationships:

24h Wed solar time = 24h. 03 min. 56.555sec. sidereal time

1 hour = 1h. 00 min. 09.856 sec.

1 minute. = 1 min. 00.164 sec.

1 sec. = 1.003 sec.

24 hours sidereal time = 23 hours 56 minutes 04.091 sec. cf. solar time

1 hour = 59 minutes 50.170 sec.

1 minute. = 59.836 sec.

1 sec. = 0.997 sec.

Time in any dimension - sidereal, true solar or mean solar - is different on different meridians. But all points lying on the same meridian at the same time have the same time, which is called local time. When moving along the same parallel to the west or east, the time at the starting point will not correspond to the local time of all other geographical points located on this parallel.

In order to eliminate this shortcoming to some extent, the Canadian S. Fleshing suggested introducing standard time, i.e. a time counting system based on the division of the Earth's surface into 24 time zones, each of which is 15 ° apart from the neighboring zone in longitude. Flushing plotted 24 major meridians on the world map. Approximately 7.5 ° to the east and west of them, the boundaries of the time zone of this zone were conditionally plotted. The time of the same time zone at each moment for all its points was considered the same.

Before Flushing, maps with various prime meridians were published in many countries of the world. So, for example, in Russia, longitudes were counted from the meridian passing through the Pulkovo Observatory, in France - through the Paris Observatory, in Germany - through the Berlin Observatory, in Turkey - through the Istanbul Observatory. To introduce standard time, it was necessary to unify a single initial meridian.

Standard time was first introduced in the United States in 1883, and in 1884. in Washington at the International Conference, in which Russia also took part, an agreed decision was made on standard time. The conference participants agreed to consider the meridian of the Greenwich Observatory as the initial or zero meridian, and the local mean solar time of the Greenwich meridian was called universal or world time. The so-called “date line” was also established at the conference.

Standard time was introduced in our country in 1919. Taking as a basis the international system of time zones and the then existing administrative borders, time zones from II to XII inclusive were marked on the RSFSR map. The local time of time zones located east of the Greenwich meridian increases by an hour from belt to belt, and decreases by an hour to the west of Greenwich.

When counting time in calendar days, it is important to establish on which meridian a new date (day of the month) begins. By international agreement, the date change line runs for the most part along the meridian, which is 180 ° away from Greenwich, retreating from it: to the west - near Wrangel Island and the Aleutian Islands, to the east - off the coast of Asia, the islands of Fiji, Samoa, Tongatabu, Kermandek and Chatham.

To the west of the date line, the day of the month is always one more than to the east of it. Therefore, after crossing this line from west to east, it is necessary to decrease the number of the month by one, and after crossing it from east to west, increase it by one. This date change is usually made at the nearest midnight after crossing the international date line. It is quite obvious that the new calendar month and the new year begin on the date line.

Thus, the prime meridian and the 180° E meridian, along which the international date line runs, divide the globe into the western and eastern hemispheres.

Throughout the history of mankind, the daily rotation of the Earth has always served as an ideal standard of time, which regulated the activities of people and was a symbol of uniformity and accuracy.

The oldest instrument for determining time BC was a gnomon, in Greek a pointer, a vertical pillar on a leveled platform, the shadow of which, changing its direction when the Sun moved, showed one or another time of the day on a scale marked on the ground near the pillar. Sundials have been known since the 7th century BC. Initially, they were distributed in Egypt and the countries of the Middle East, from where they moved to Greece and Rome, and even later penetrated into the countries of Western and Eastern Europe. Questions of gnomonics - the art of making sundials and the ability to use them - were dealt with by astronomers and mathematicians of the ancient world, the Middle Ages and modern times. In the 18th century and at the beginning of the 19th century. gnomonics was expounded in mathematics textbooks.

And only after 1955, when the requirements of physicists and astronomers to the accuracy of time increased greatly, it became impossible to be satisfied with the daily rotation of the Earth as a standard of time, already uneven with the required accuracy. Time, determined by the rotation of the Earth, is uneven due to the movements of the pole and the redistribution of the angular momentum between different parts of the Earth (hydrosphere, mantle, liquid core). The meridian accepted for counting time is determined by the EOR point and the point on the equator corresponding to zero longitude. This meridian is very close to Greenwich.

The earth rotates unevenly, which causes a change in the length of the day. The speed of the Earth's rotation can most simply be characterized by the deviation of the duration of the Earth's day from the reference (86,400 s). The shorter the Earth's day, the faster the Earth rotates.

There are three components in the magnitude of the change in the speed of the Earth's rotation: secular deceleration, periodic seasonal fluctuations and irregular intermittent changes.

The secular deceleration of the Earth's rotation rate is due to the action of the tidal forces of attraction of the Moon and the Sun. The tidal force stretches the Earth along a straight line connecting its center with the center of the perturbing body - the Moon or the Sun. In this case, the compression force of the Earth increases if the resultant coincides with the plane of the equator, and decreases when it deviates towards the tropics. The moment of inertia of the compressed Earth is greater than that of an undeformed spherical planet, and since the angular momentum of the Earth (i.e., the product of its moment of inertia and the angular velocity) must remain constant, the rotation speed of the compressed Earth is less than that of the undeformed one. Due to the fact that the declinations of the Moon and the Sun, the distances from the Earth to the Moon and the Sun are constantly changing, the tidal force fluctuates with time. The compression of the Earth changes accordingly, which ultimately causes tidal fluctuations in the speed of the Earth's rotation. The most significant of these are fluctuations with semi-monthly and monthly periods.

The slowdown in the speed of the Earth's rotation is found in astronomical observations and paleontological studies. Observations of ancient solar eclipses led to the conclusion that the duration of a day increases by 2s every 100,000 years. Paleontological observations of corals have shown that warm sea corals grow to form a belt whose thickness depends on the amount of light received per day. Thus, it is possible to determine the annual changes in their structure and calculate the number of days in a year. In the modern era, 365 coral belts are found. According to paleontological observations (Table 5), the duration of the day increases linearly with time by 1.9 s per 100,000 years.

Table 5

According to observations over the past 250 years, the day has increased by 0.0014 s per century. According to some data, in addition to tidal slowdown, there is an increase in the rotation speed by 0.001 s per century, which is caused by a change in the moment of inertia of the Earth due to the slow movement of matter inside the Earth and on its surface. Own acceleration reduces the length of the day. Consequently, if it were not there, then the day would increase by 0.0024 s per century.

Before the creation of atomic clocks, the Earth's rotation was controlled by comparing the observed and calculated coordinates of the Moon, Sun, and planets. In this way, it was possible to get an idea of ​​the change in the speed of the Earth's rotation during the last three centuries - from the end of the 17th century, when the first instrumental observations of the motion of the Moon, Sun, and planets began to be made. An analysis of these data shows (Fig. 1.27) that from the beginning of the 17th century. until the middle of the 19th century. The speed of the Earth's rotation has changed little. From the second half of the 19th century Until now, significant irregular velocity fluctuations have been observed with characteristic times of the order of 60–70 years.

Fig.1.27. Deviation of the length of the day from the reference for 350 years

The Earth rotated most rapidly around 1870, when the duration of the Earth's day was 0.003 s shorter than the reference. The slowest - about 1903, when the Earth's day was longer than the reference day by 0.004 s. From 1903 to 1934 there was an acceleration of the rotation of the Earth, from the end of the 30s to 1972. there was a slowdown, and since 1973. The Earth is currently accelerating its rotation.

Periodic annual and semi-annual fluctuations in the rate of rotation of the Earth are explained by periodic changes in the moment of inertia of the Earth due to the seasonal dynamics of the atmosphere and the planetary distribution of precipitation. According to modern data, the length of the day during the year varies by ±0.001 seconds. At the same time, the shortest day falls on July-August, and the longest - on March.

Periodic changes in the speed of rotation of the Earth have periods of 14 and 28 days (lunar) and 6 months and 1 year (solar). The minimum speed of the Earth's rotation (acceleration is zero) corresponds to February 14, the average speed (maximum acceleration) - May 28, the maximum speed (acceleration is zero) - August 9, the average speed (minimum deceleration) - November 6.

Random changes in the speed of the Earth's rotation are also observed, which occur at irregular intervals, almost a multiple of eleven years. The absolute value of the relative change in the angular velocity reached in 1898. 3.9 × 10 -8, and in 1920. - 4.5 × 10 -8. The nature and nature of random fluctuations in the speed of the Earth's rotation have been little studied. One of the hypotheses explains the irregular fluctuations in the angular velocity of the Earth's rotation by the recrystallization of certain rocks inside the Earth, which changes its moment of inertia.

Before the discovery of the unevenness of the Earth's rotation, the derived unit of time - the second - was defined as 1/86400 of the fraction of a mean solar day. The variability of the mean solar day due to the uneven rotation of the Earth forced us to abandon such a definition of the second.

In October 1959 The International Bureau of Weights and Measures decided to give the following definition to the fundamental unit of time, the second:

"A second is 1/31556925.9747 of the tropical year for 1900, January 0, at 12 o'clock ephemeris time."

The so-defined second is called "ephemeris". The number 31556925.9747=86400´365.2421988 is the number of seconds in a tropical year whose duration for the year 1900, January 0, at 12 o'clock ephemeris time (uniform Newtonian time) was 365.2421988 mean solar days.

In other words, an ephemeris second is a time interval equal to 1/86400 of the average length of a mean solar day they had in 1900, January 0, at 12 o'clock ephemeris time. Thus, the new definition of the second was also associated with the movement of the Earth around the Sun, while the old definition was based only on its rotation around its axis.

Nowadays, time is a physical quantity that can be measured with the highest accuracy. The unit of time - a second of "atomic" time (SI second) - is equated to the duration of 9192631770 periods of radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the cesium-133 atom, was introduced in 1967 by the decision of the XII General Conference of Weights and Measures, and in 1970 " atomic time was taken as the fundamental reference time. The relative accuracy of the cesium frequency standard is 10 -10 -10 -11 for several years. The standard of atomic time has neither diurnal nor secular fluctuations, does not age and has sufficient certainty, accuracy and reproducibility.

With the introduction of atomic time, the accuracy of determining the uneven rotation of the Earth has significantly improved. From that moment on, it became possible to register all fluctuations in the speed of the Earth's rotation with a period of more than one month. Figure 1.28 shows the course of average monthly deviations for the period 1955-2000.

From 1956 to 1961 The Earth's rotation accelerated from 1962 to 1972. - slowed down, and since 1973. to the present - accelerated again. This acceleration has not yet ended and will last until 2010. Acceleration of rotation 1958-1961 and slowdown 1989-1994. are short term fluctuations. Seasonal fluctuations lead to the fact that the speed of the Earth's rotation is the lowest in April and November, and the highest in January and July. The January maximum is much less than the July one. The difference between the minimum deviation of the duration of the Earth's day from the standard in July and the maximum in April or November is 0.001 s.

Fig.1.28. Average monthly deviations of the duration of the earth's day from the reference for 45 years

The study of the unevenness of the Earth's rotation, the nutations of the Earth's axis, and the movement of the poles is of great scientific and practical importance. Knowledge of these parameters is necessary to determine the coordinates of celestial and terrestrial objects. They contribute to the expansion of our knowledge in various fields of geosciences.

In the 80s of the 20th century, astronomical methods for determining the parameters of the Earth's rotation were replaced by new methods of geodesy. Doppler observations of satellites, laser ranging of the Moon and satellites, the global positioning system GPS, radio interferometry are effective tools for studying the uneven rotation of the Earth and the movement of the poles. The most suitable for radio interferometry are quasars - powerful sources of radio emission of extremely small angular size (less than 0.02²), which are, apparently, the most distant objects of the Universe, practically motionless in the sky. Quasar radio interferometry is the most efficient and independent of optical measurements tool for studying the rotational motion of the Earth.

Why does the earth rotate on its axis? Why, in the presence of friction, did it not stop for millions of years (or maybe it stopped and rotated in the other direction more than once)? What determines continental drift? What is the cause of earthquakes? Why did dinosaurs become extinct? How to scientifically explain periods of glaciation? In what way or more precisely how to scientifically explain empirical astrology?Try to answer these questions in sequence.

Abstracts

1. The reason for the rotation of the planets around their axis is an external source of energy - the Sun.
2. The rotation mechanism is as follows:
   • The sun heats the gaseous and liquid phases of the planets (atmosphere and hydrosphere).
   • As a result of uneven heating, ‘air’ and ‘sea’ currents arise, which, through interaction with the solid phase of the planet, begin to spin it in one direction or another.
   • The configuration of the solid phase of the planet, like the blades of a turbine, determines the direction and speed of rotation.
3. If the solid phase is not sufficiently monolithic and solid, then it moves (continental drift).
4. The movement of the solid phase (continental drift) can lead to an acceleration or deceleration of rotation up to a change in the direction of rotation, etc. Oscillatory and other effects are possible.
5. In turn, the similarly displaced solid upper phase (the earth's crust) interacts with the underlying layers of the earth, which are more stable in terms of rotation. At the contact boundary, a large amount of energy is released in the form of heat. This thermal energy, apparently, is one of the main reasons for the heating of the Earth. And this border is one of the areas where the formation of rocks and minerals takes place.
6. All these accelerations and decelerations have a long-term effect (climate), and a short-term effect (weather), and not only meteorological, but also geological, biological, genetic.

Confirmations

After reviewing and comparing the available astronomical data on the planets of the solar system, I conclude that the data on all planets fit into the framework of this theory. Where there are 3 phases of the state of matter there, the rotation speed is greatest.

Moreover, one of the planets, having a highly elongated orbit, has a clearly uneven (oscillatory) rotation speed during its year.

Table of elements of the solar system

bodies of the solar system	Average Distance to the Sun, a. e.	The average period of rotation around the axis	The number of phases of the state of matter on the surface	Number of satellites	sidereal period, year	Orbital inclination to the ecliptic	Mass (Earth mass unit)
Sun		25days (35 per pole)		9 planets			333000
Mercury	0,387	58.65 days			0,241		0,054
Venus	0,723	243 days			0,615	3° 24'	0,815
Earth		23h 56m 4s
Mars	1,524	24h 37m 23s			1,881	1° 51'	0,108
Jupiter	5,203	9h 50m		16+p. ring	11,86	1° 18'	317,83
Saturn	9,539	10h 14m		17+rings	29,46	2° 29'	95,15
Uranus	19,19	10h 49m		5+knot rings	84,01	0° 46'	14,54
Neptune	30,07	15h 48m			164,7	1° 46'	17,23
Pluto	39,65	6.4 days	2- 3 ?		248,9	17°	0,017

The reasons for the rotation around its axis of the Sun are interesting. What forces are causing it?

Undoubtedly, internal, since the flow of energy comes from within the Sun itself. And the uneven rotation from the pole to the equator? There is no answer to this yet.

Direct measurements show that the speed of the Earth's rotation changes during the day, just like the weather. So, for example, according to “Periodic changes in the speed of the Earth's rotation were also noted, corresponding to the change of seasons, i.e. associated with meteorological phenomena, combined with the peculiarities of the distribution of land over the surface of the globe. Sometimes there are sudden changes in rotational speed that have not been explained ...

In 1956, a sudden change in the speed of the Earth's rotation occurred after an exceptionally powerful flare on the Sun on February 25 of this year. Also, according to "from June to September, the Earth rotates faster than the average for the year, and the rest of the time - more slowly."

A superficial analysis of a map of sea currents shows that for the most part, sea currents determine the direction of the earth's rotation. North and South America are the driving belt of the entire Earth, through which two powerful currents turn the Earth. Other currents move Africa and form the Red Sea.

... Other evidence shows that sea currents cause part of the continents to drift. “Researchers at US Northwestern University, as well as several other North American, Peruvian, and Ecuadorian institutions...” used satellites to analyze Andean relief measurements. “The findings were summarized in her dissertation by Lisa Leffer-Griffin.” The following figure (right) shows the results of these two years of observations and studies.

Black arrows show the speed vectors of movement of control points. An analysis of this picture once again clearly shows that North and South America is the driving belt of the entire Earth.

A similar picture is observed along the Pacific coast of North America, opposite the point of application of forces from the current there is an area of ​​​​seismic activity and, as a result, the famous fault. There are parallel chains of mountains that suggest the periodicity of the above described phenomena.

Practical application

Gets an explanation and the presence of a volcanic belt - the belt of earthquakes.

The earthquake belt is nothing but a giant accordion, which is constantly in motion under the influence of tensile and compressive variable forces.

Following the winds and currents, it is possible to determine the points (areas) of application of untwisting and braking forces, and then using a pre-built mathematical model of the area, it is possible to calculate earthquakes mathematically strictly, according to the strength of the data!

The daily fluctuations of the Earth's magnetic field are explained, completely different explanations of geological and geophysical phenomena arise, additional facts arise for the analysis of hypotheses about the origin of the planets of the solar system.

The formation of such geological formations as island arcs, for example, the Aleutian or Kuril Islands, is being explained. Arcs are formed from the side opposite to the action of sea and wind forces, as a result of the interaction of a mobile continent (for example, Eurasia) with a less mobile oceanic crust (for example, the Pacific Ocean). In this case, the oceanic crust does not move under the mainland, but, on the contrary, the mainland moves towards the ocean, and only in those places where the oceanic crust transfers forces to another continent (in this example, America) can the oceanic crust move under the continent and arcs are not formed here. In turn, similarly, the American continent transfers efforts to the crust of the Atlantic Ocean and through it to Eurasia and Africa, i.e. the circle is closed.

This movement is confirmed by the block structure of the faults of the bottom of the Pacific and Atlantic oceans; movements occur in blocks along the direction of the forces.

Some facts are explained:

• why dinosaurs died out (changed, decreased rotation speed and significantly increased the length of the day, possibly until a complete change in the direction of rotation);
• why periods of glaciation occurred;
• why some plants have a different genetically determined daylight hours.

Through genetics, this empirically alchemical astrology is also explained.

Environmental problems associated with even slight climate change can significantly affect the Earth's biosphere through sea currents.

Reference

The power of solar radiation when approaching the Earth is huge ~ 1.5 kWh/m

2 .

The imaginary body of the Earth, bounded by a surface, which at all points

perpendicular to the direction of gravity and has the same gravity potential is called the geoid.

In fact, even the sea surface does not correspond to the shape of the geoid. The shape that we see in the section is the same more or less balanced gravitational shape that the globe has reached.

There are also local deviations from the geoid. For example, the Gulf Stream rises 100-150 cm above the surrounding water surface, the Sargasso Sea is elevated and, conversely, the ocean level is lowered near the Bahamas and over the Puerto Rico Trench. The reason for these small differences is winds and currents. East trade winds drive water into the western part of the Atlantic. The Gulf Stream carries away this excess water, so its level is higher than that of the surrounding waters. The level of the Sargasso Sea is higher because it is the center of the circulation of currents and water is being driven into it from all sides.

Sea currents:

• Gulfstream system

The capacity at the exit from the Strait of Florida is 25 million m

3 / s, which is 20 times the capacity of all rivers on earth. In the open ocean, the power increases to 80 million m 3 / s at an average speed of 1.5 m/s.

Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

, the largest current of the world ocean, also called the Antarctic circular current, etc. It is directed to the east and encircles Antarctica in a continuous ring. The length of the ADC is 20 thousand km, the width is 800–1500 km. Water transfer in the ADC system ~ 150 million m 3 / With. The average speed on the surface according to drifting buoys is 0.18 m/s.

Kuroshio

- an analogue of the Gulf Stream, continues as the North Pacific (can be traced to a depth of 1-1.5 km, speed 0.25 - 0.5 m / s), Alaska and California currents (width 1000 km, average speed up to 0.25 m / s, in the coastal strip at a depth below 150 m passes a steady countercurrent).

Peruvian, Humboldt Current

(velocity up to 0.25 m/s, in the coastal strip there are Peru and Peru-Chile countercurrents directed to the south).

Tectonic scheme and current system of the Atlantic Ocean.

1 - Gulf Stream, 2 and 3 - equatorial currents(North and South Trade Winds),4 - Antilles, 5 - Caribbean, 6 - Canary, 7 - Portuguese, 8 - North Atlantic, 9 - Irminger, 10 - Norwegian, 11 - East Greenland, 12 - West Greenland, 13 - Labrador, 14 - Guinean, 15 - Benguela, 16 - Brazilian, 17 - Falkland, 18 -Antarctic Circumpolar Current (ACC)

1. Modern knowledge about the synchronicity of glacial and interglacial periods throughout the globe testifies not so much to a change in the flow of solar energy, but to cyclic movements of the earth's axis. The fact that both of these phenomena exist has been proven with all irrefutability. When spots appear on the Sun, the intensity of its radiation weakens. The maximum deviations from the intensity norm are rarely more than 2%, which is clearly insufficient for the formation of an ice cover. The second factor was already studied in the 1920s by Milankovitch, who derived theoretical curves for fluctuations in solar radiation for various geographic latitudes. There is evidence indicating that there was more volcanic dust in the atmosphere during the Pleistocene. The layer of Antarctic ice of the corresponding age contains more volcanic ash than later layers (see the following figure by A. Gow and T. Williamson, 1971). Most of the ash was found in the layer, which is 30,000-16,000 years old. The study of oxygen isotopes showed that lower temperatures correspond to the same layer. Of course, this argument indicates high volcanic activity.

Mean vectors of motion of lithospheric plates

(according to laser satellite observations over the past 15 years)

Comparison with the previous figure once again confirms this theory of the Earth's rotation!

Paleotemperature and volcanic intensity curves obtained from an ice sample at Byrd Station in Antarctica.

Layers of volcanic ash were found in the ice core. The graphs show that after intense volcanic activity, the end of glaciation began.

The volcanic activity itself (with a constant solar flux) ultimately depends on the temperature difference between the equatorial and polar regions and the configuration, the relief of the surface of the continents, the bed of the oceans and the relief of the lower surface of the earth's crust!

V. Farrand (1965) and others proved that the events at the initial stage of the ice age took place in the following sequence: 1 - glaciation,

2 - land cooling, 3 - ocean cooling. At the final stage, the glaciers melted first and only then warming.

The movements of lithospheric plates (blocks) are too slow to cause such consequences directly. Recall that the average speed of movement is 4 cm per year. In 11,000 years, they would have moved only 500 m. But this is enough to radically change the system of sea currents and thus reduce the transfer of heat to the polar regions.

. It is enough to turn the Gulf Stream or change the Antarctic Circumpolar Current and glaciation is guaranteed!

The half-life of radioactive gas radon is 3.85 days, its appearance with a variable debit on the earth's surface above the thickness of sandy-clay deposits (2-3 km) indicates the constant formation of microcracks, which are the result of the unevenness and multidirectionality of constantly changing stresses in it. This is another confirmation of this theory of the rotation of the Earth. I would like to analyze a map of the distribution of radon and helium around the globe, unfortunately, I do not have such data. Helium is an element that requires much less energy to form than other elements (except hydrogen).

A few words for biology and astrology.

As you know, the gene is more or less stable formation. To obtain mutations, significant external influences are necessary: ​​radiation (irradiation), chemical influence (poisoning), biological influence (infections and diseases). Thus, in the gene, as by analogy in the annual rings of plants, newly acquired mutations are fixed. This is especially known for the example of plants, there are plants with long and short daylight hours. And this already directly indicates the duration of the corresponding light period, when this species was formed.

All these astrological "stuff" make sense only in relation to a certain race, a people who have been living in their native environment for a long time. Where the environment is constant throughout the year, there is no point in the signs of the Zodiac and there must be its own empiricism - astrology, its own calendar. Apparently, the genes contain an algorithm of the body's behavior that has not yet been clarified, which is realized when the environment changes (birth, development, nutrition, reproduction, diseases). So this algorithm is empirically trying to find astrology

.

Some hypotheses and conclusions arising from this theory of the Earth's rotation

So, the source of energy for the rotation of the Earth around its own axis is the Sun. It is known, according to , that the phenomena of precession, nutation and the movement of the Earth's poles do not affect the angular velocity of the Earth's rotation.

In 1754, the German philosopher I. Kant explained the changes in the acceleration of the Moon's motion by the fact that the tidal humps formed by the Moon on the Earth, as a result of friction, are carried along with the solid body of the Earth in the direction of the Earth's rotation (see figure). The attraction of these humps by the Moon together gives a couple of forces that slow down the rotation of the Earth. Further, the mathematical theory of "secular deceleration" of the Earth's rotation was developed by J. Darwin.

Before the appearance of this theory of the Earth's rotation, it was believed that no processes occurring on the Earth's surface, as well as the influence of external bodies, could not explain the changes in the Earth's rotation. Looking at the above figure, in addition to conclusions about the deceleration of the Earth's rotation, we can draw deeper conclusions. Note that the tidal bulge is ahead in the direction of the Moon's rotation. And this is a sure sign that the Moon not only slows down the rotation of the Earth, but and the rotation of the earth keeps the moon moving around the earth. Thus, the energy of the Earth's rotation is "transferred" to the Moon. More general conclusions about the satellites of other planets follow from this. Satellites have a stable position only if the planet has tidal humps, i.e. hydrosphere or a significant atmosphere, and at the same time the satellites must rotate in the direction of the planet's rotation and in the same plane. The rotation of the satellites in opposite directions directly indicates an unsteady regime - a recent change in the direction of the planet's rotation or a recent collision of the satellites with each other.

According to the same law, interactions between the Sun and the planets proceed. But here, due to the many tidal humps, oscillatory effects with sidereal periods of the planets around the Sun should take place.

The main period is 11.86 years from Jupiter, as the most massive planet.

1. A new look at planetary evolution

Thus, this theory explains the existing picture of the distribution of the angular momentum (momentum) of the Sun and planets and there is no need for the hypothesis of O.Yu. Schmidt on accidental capture by the Sun "protoplanetary cloud. VG Fesenkov's conclusions about the simultaneous formation of the Sun and planets receive one more confirmation.

Consequence

This theory of the Earth's rotation may be a hypothesis about the direction of evolution of the planets in the direction from Pluto to Venus. In this way, Venus is the future prototype of the Earth. The planet overheated, the oceans evaporated. This is confirmed by the above graphs of paleotemperatures and the intensity of volcanic activity, obtained by examining an ice sample at Bird Station in Antarctica.

From the point of view of this theory,if an alien civilization originated, it was not on Mars, but on Venus. And we should look not for the Martians, but for the descendants of the Venusians, which, perhaps, we are to some extent.

1. Ecology and climate

Thus, this theory refutes the idea of ​​a constant (zero) heat balance. In the balances known to me, there is no energy of earthquakes, continental drift, tides, heating of the Earth and the formation of rocks, maintaining the rotation of the Moon, biological life. (It turns out that biological life is one way of absorbing energy). It is known that the atmosphere for the production of wind uses less than 1% of the energy to maintain the system of currents. At the same time, out of the total amount of heat carried by currents, 100 times more can potentially be used. So this 100 times greater value and also wind energy are used unevenly in time for earthquakes, typhoons and hurricanes, continental drift, tides, warming up the Earth and the formation of rocks, maintaining the rotation of the Earth and the Moon, etc.

Environmental problems associated with even slight climate change due to changes in sea currents can significantly affect the Earth's biosphere. Any ill-considered (or deliberate in the interests of one nation) attempts to change the climate by turning the (Northern) rivers, laying canals (Kanin's nose), building dams across the straits, etc., due to the speed of implementation, in addition to direct benefits, will certainly lead to a change in the existing "seismic balance" in the earth's crust i.e. to the formation of new seismic zones.

In other words, one must first understand all the relationships, and then learn how to control the rotation of the Earth - this is one of the tasks for the further development of civilization.

P.S.

A few words about the effect of solar flares on cardiovascular patients.

In the light of this theory, the effect of solar flares on cardiovascular patients is apparently not due to the occurrence of increased electromagnetic fields on the Earth's surface. Under power lines, the intensity of these fields is much higher and this does not have a noticeable effect on cardiovascular patients. The impact of solar flares on cardiovascular patients appears to be affected by exposure to periodic change in horizontal accelerations when the speed of the earth's rotation changes. All sorts of accidents, including those on pipelines, can be explained similarly.

1. Geological processes

As noted above (see thesis No. 5), a large amount of energy is released in the form of heat at the contact boundary (Mohorovichich boundary). And this border is one of the areas where the formation of rocks and minerals takes place. The nature of the reactions (chemical or atomic, apparently even both) is unknown, but on the basis of some facts, the following conclusions can already be drawn.

1. There is an ascending flow of elementary gases along the faults of the earth's crust: hydrogen, helium, nitrogen, etc.
2. The flow of hydrogen is decisive in the formation of many mineral deposits, including coal and oil.

Coalbed methane is a product of the interaction of a hydrogen flow with a coal seam! The generally accepted metamorphic process of peat, lignite, black coal, anthracite without taking into account the flow of hydrogen is not complete enough. It is known that already at the stages of peat, brown coal, methane is absent. There are also data (Professor I. Sharovar) on the presence of anthracites in nature, in which there are not even molecular traces of methane. The result of the interaction of the hydrogen flow with the coal seam can explain not only the presence of methane itself in the seam and its constant formation, but also the whole variety of coal grades. Coking coal, flow and the presence of a large amount of methane in steeply dipping deposits (presence of a large number of faults) and the correlation of these factors confirm this assumption.

Oil, gas - a product of the interaction of the flow of hydrogen with organic residues (coal seam). This view is confirmed by the relative position of coal and oil fields. If we superimpose a map of the distribution of coal strata on a map of the distribution of oil, then the following picture is observed. These deposits do not intersect! There is no place where there would be oil on top of coal! In addition, it has been noted that oil lies, on average, much deeper than coal and is confined to faults in the earth's crust (where an upward flow of gases, including hydrogen, should be observed).

I would like to analyze a map of the distribution of radon and helium around the globe, unfortunately, I do not have such data. Helium, unlike hydrogen, is an inert gas, which is absorbed by rocks to a much lesser extent than other gases and can serve as a sign of a deep hydrogen flow.

1. All chemical elements, including radioactive ones, are still being formed! The reason for this is the rotation of the Earth. These processes take place both at the lower boundary of the earth's crust and deeper layers of the earth.

The faster the Earth rotates, the faster these processes (including the formation of minerals and rocks) go faster. Therefore, the earth's crust of the continents is thicker than the earth's crust of the oceans! Since the areas of application of the forces that slow down and spin the planet, from sea and air currents, are located to a much greater extent on the continents than in the bed of the oceans.

Meteorites and radioactive elements

If we assume that meteorites are part of the solar system and the substance of meteorites was formed simultaneously with it, then by the composition of meteorites it is possible to check the correctness of this theory of the Earth's rotation around its own axis.

Distinguish between iron and stone meteorites. Iron consist of iron, nickel, cobalt and do not contain heavy radioactive elements such as uranium and thorium. Stony meteorites are composed of various minerals and silicate rocks, in which the presence of various radioactive components of uranium, thorium, potassium and rubidium can be detected. There are also stony-iron meteorites, which occupy an intermediate position in composition between iron and stony meteorites. If we assume that meteorites are the remains of destroyed planets or their satellites, then stone meteorites correspond to the crust of these planets, and iron meteorites correspond to their core. Thus, the presence of radioactive elements in stony meteorites (in the crust) and their absence in iron meteorites (in the core) confirms the formation of radioactive elements not in the core, but at the contact between the core and the mantle. It should also be taken into account that iron meteorites, on average, are much older than stone ones by about one billion years (since the crust is younger than the core). The assumption that elements such as uranium and thorium are inherited from the ancestral environment, and did not arise “simultaneously” with the rest of the elements, is incorrect, since there is radioactivity in younger stone meteorites, but not in older iron ones! Thus, the physical mechanism for the formation of radioactive elements has yet to be found! Perhaps it

something like a tunnel effect in relation to atomic nuclei!

1. The influence of the rotation of the earth around its axis on the evolutionary development of the world

It is known that over the past 600 million years, the animal world of the globe has changed radically at least 14 times. At the same time, over the past 3 billion years, general cooling and great glaciations have been observed on Earth at least 15 times. Considering the scale of paleomagnetism (see Fig.), one can also notice at least 14 zones of variable polarity, i.e. areas of frequent polarity reversal. These zones of alternating polarity, according to this theory of the Earth's rotation, correspond to periods of time when the Earth had an unsteady (oscillatory effect) direction of rotation around its own axis. That is, during these periods, the most unfavorable conditions for the animal world should be observed with a constant change in daylight hours, temperatures, and also, from a geological point of view, a change in volcanic activity, seismic activity and mountain building.

It should be replaced that the formation of fundamentally new species of the animal world is confined to these periods. For example, at the end of the Triassic there is the longest period (5 million years), during which the first mammals were formed. The appearance of the first reptiles corresponds to the same period in the Carboniferous. The appearance of amphibians corresponds to the same period in Devon. The appearance of angiosperms corresponds to the same period in the Jura and the appearance of the first birds immediately precedes the same period in the Jura. The appearance of conifers corresponds to the same period in the Carboniferous. The appearance of club mosses and horsetails corresponds to the same period in Devon. The appearance of insects corresponds to the same period in Devon.

Thus, the connection between the appearance of new species and periods with a variable unstable direction of the Earth's rotation is obvious. As for the extinction of individual species, the change in the direction of the Earth's rotation apparently does not have the main decisive effect, the main decisive factor in this case is natural selection!

References.

1. V.A. Volynsky. "Astronomy". Education. Moscow. 1971
2. P.G. Kulikovsky. "Amateur's Guide to Astronomy". Fizmatgiz. Moscow. 1961
3. S. Alekseev. "How Mountains Grow" Chemistry and life of the XXI century №4. 1998 Marine Encyclopedic Dictionary. Shipbuilding. St. Petersburg. 1993
4. Kukal "Great Mysteries of the Earth". Progress. Moscow. 1988
5. I.P. Selinov "Isotopes Volume III". The science. Moscow. 1970 "Rotation of the Earth" TSB volume 9. Moscow.
6. D. Tolmazin. "Ocean in motion" Gidrometeoizdat. 1976
7. A. N. Oleinikov “Geological clock“. Bosom. Moscow. 1987
8. G.S.Grinberg, D.A.Dolin and others. “The Arctic on the threshold of the third millennium“. The science. Saint Petersburg 2000

Since time immemorial, mankind has been interested in the processes that take place in the Universe. Why does the sun rise every morning? What is the Moon? How many stars are in the sky? Does the Earth rotate, and at what speed?
What is the speed of the earth?
People have long observed the change of day to night and the annual sequence of the seasons. What does this mean? Later it was proved that such changes are due to the rotation of our planet around its axis. However, humanity did not come to this knowledge immediately. It took many years to prove the currently obvious facts.
For a long time, people could not realize this phenomenon, because, in their opinion, a person is in the camp of calmness, and it is not visible that any movement passes through him. However, such a statement is not correct. All objects around you (table, computer, window, etc.) are in motion. How can it move? This is due to the rotation of the Earth around its axis. In addition, our planet moves not only around the axis, but also around the celestial body. Moreover, its trajectory is not a circle, but resembles an ellipse.
To demonstrate the features of the movement of a celestial body, they often turn to the Yule. Its movements are very similar to the rotation of the Earth.
Later it was proved by scientific methods that our planet is moving. Thus, the Earth makes one rotation around its axis in a day - twenty-four hours. It is with this that the change of time of day, day to night, is connected.
The mass of the Sun is much greater than the mass of the Earth. The distance between these celestial bodies reaches one hundred and fifty million kilometers. Studies have shown that the speed of rotation of the Earth reaches thirty kilometers per second. A full turnover is completed in one year. In addition, in four years one more day is added, which is why we have a leap year.
But humanity did not come to such results immediately. So, even G. Galileo opposed the theory that spoke of the rotation of the planet. He demonstrated this assertion in the following way. The scientist threw a stone from the top of the tower, and it fell at the foot of the building. Galileo noted that the rotation of the Earth would have shifted the place where the stone fell, but modern research completely denies these statements.
Based on the foregoing, it follows that humanity has come a long way to understanding that the Earth is in constant motion around the Sun. First, the planet rotates on its axis. Also, our celestial body moves around the luminary that provides us with heat. This is what causes the change of time of day and seasons.

It is spherical, however, it is not a perfect ball. Due to the rotation, the planet is slightly flattened at the poles, such a figure is usually called a spheroid or geoid - "like the earth."

The earth is huge, its size is hard to imagine. The main parameters of our planet are as follows:

• Diameter - 12570 km
• Equator length - 40076 km
• The length of any meridian is 40008 km
• The total surface area of ​​the Earth is 510 million km2
• The radius of the poles - 6357 km
• Equator radius - 6378 km

The earth simultaneously rotates around the sun and around its own axis.

The earth rotates around an inclined axis from west to east. Half of the globe is illuminated by the sun, it is day there at this time, the other half is in the shade, there is night. Due to the rotation of the Earth, there is a change of day and night. The Earth makes one revolution around its axis in 24 hours - a day.

Due to rotation, moving streams (rivers, winds) in the northern hemisphere are deflected to the right, and in the southern hemisphere - to the left.

Rotation of the Earth around the Sun

The Earth revolves around the sun in a circular orbit, a complete revolution takes 1 year. The Earth's axis is not vertical, it is inclined at an angle of 66.5° to the orbit, this angle remains constant during the entire rotation. The main consequence of this rotation is the change of seasons.

Consider the extreme points of rotation of the Earth around the Sun.

• December 22- winter solstice. Closest to the sun (the sun is at its zenith) at this moment is the southern tropic - therefore, summer is in the southern hemisphere, winter is in the northern hemisphere. The nights in the southern hemisphere are short, at the southern polar circle on December 22 the day lasts 24 hours, the night does not come. In the Northern Hemisphere, the opposite is true; in the Arctic Circle, the night lasts 24 hours.
• 22nd of June- the day of the summer solstice. The northern tropic is closest to the sun, in the northern hemisphere it is summer, in the southern hemisphere it is winter. In the southern polar circle, night lasts 24 hours, and in the northern polar circle, night does not come at all.
• March 21, September 23- the days of the spring and autumn equinoxes. The equator is closest to the sun, the day is equal to the night in both hemispheres.

The earth is spherical, however, it is not a perfect sphere. Due to the rotation, the planet is slightly flattened at the poles, such a figure is usually called a spheroid or geoid - "like the earth."

The earth is huge, its size is hard to imagine. The main parameters of our planet are as follows:

• Diameter - 12570 km
• Equator length - 40076 km
• The length of any meridian is 40008 km
• The total surface area of ​​the Earth is 510 million km2
• The radius of the poles - 6357 km
• Equator radius - 6378 km

The earth simultaneously rotates around the sun and around its own axis.

What types of earth motion do you know?
Annual and daily rotation of the Earth

Rotation of the Earth around its axis

The earth rotates around an inclined axis from west to east.

Half of the globe is illuminated by the sun, it is day there at this time, the other half is in the shade, there is night. Due to the rotation of the Earth, there is a change of day and night. The Earth makes one revolution around its axis in 24 hours - a day.

Due to rotation, moving streams (rivers, winds) in the northern hemisphere are deflected to the right, and in the southern hemisphere - to the left.

Rotation of the Earth around the Sun

The Earth revolves around the sun in a circular orbit, a complete revolution takes 1 year. The Earth's axis is not vertical, it is inclined at an angle of 66.5° to the orbit, this angle remains constant during the entire rotation. The main consequence of this rotation is the change of seasons.

Consider the extreme points of rotation of the Earth around the Sun.

• December 22- winter solstice. Closest to the sun (the sun is at its zenith) at this moment is the southern tropic - therefore, summer is in the southern hemisphere, winter is in the northern hemisphere. The nights in the southern hemisphere are short, at the southern polar circle on December 22 the day lasts 24 hours, the night does not come. In the Northern Hemisphere, the opposite is true; in the Arctic Circle, the night lasts 24 hours.
• 22nd of June- the day of the summer solstice. The northern tropic is closest to the sun, in the northern hemisphere it is summer, in the southern hemisphere it is winter. In the southern polar circle, night lasts 24 hours, and in the northern polar circle, night does not come at all.
• March 21, September 23- the days of the spring and autumn equinoxes. The equator is closest to the sun, the day is equal to the night in both hemispheres.

The rotation of the Earth around its axis and around the Sun The shape and dimensions of the Earth wikipedia
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Year

Time one turn Earth around sun . In the process of annual movement, our planet moving in space with an average speed of 29.765 km/s, i.e. over 100,000 km/h.

anomalistic

An anomalistic year is the interval time between two successive passages earth his perihelion . Its duration is 365.25964 days . It is about 27 minutes longer than the duration tropical(see here) years. This is caused by a continuous change in the position of the perihelion point. In the current time period, the Earth passes the point of perihelion on January 2nd

leap year

Every fourth year in use now in most countries of the world calendar has an extra day - February 29 - and is called a leap year. The need for its introduction is due to the fact that Earth makes one revolution around sun for a period not equal to a whole number days . The annual error is almost a quarter of a day, and every four years it is compensated by the introduction of an “extra day”. see also Calendar Gregorian .

sidereal (stellar)

Time turnover Earth around sun in the coordinate system of “fixed stars ”, i.e., as if “when looking at solar system from the side." In 1950 it was 365 days , 6 hours, 9 minutes, 9 seconds.

Under the perturbing influence of the attraction of others planets , mainly Jupiter and Saturn , the length of the year is subject to fluctuations of several minutes.

In addition, the length of the year decreases by 0.53 seconds per hundred years. This is due to the fact that the Earth slows down the rotation of the Sun around its axis by tidal forces (see Fig. Ebb and flow ). However, according to the law of conservation of angular momentum, this is compensated by the fact that the Earth is moving away from the Sun and, according to the second Kepler's law the period of its circulation increases.

tropical