Borrowing French words into Russian. Words borrowed from French
There are more than 2,000 French words in the Russian language, which we use almost every day, without even suspecting their ideologically incorrect roots. And, if we gave the Fifth Republic at least one word - “Bistro” (thanks to the Cossacks who reached Montmartre in 1814 and drank all the champagne supplies there: “Get it quickly! Who did I tell? Quickly!”), then we took it from them much more.
Duty– from de jour: assigned to a certain day. For example, the classic French, seen by tourists in many cafes and bistros, plat de jour - “dish of the day”, has turned into a “daily dish” in our country.
Steering wheel, steering– from rouler: to ride, to rotate. There is nothing to explain here. Roll, yes, from here.
Nightmare– cauchemar: comes from two words – Old French chaucher - “to crush” and Flemish mare - “ghost”. This is the “ghost that comes at night and loves to gently lean against the sleeping people.”
Blinds– from jalouse (jalousie): envy, jealousy. Russians have never been comfortable with this word. Most people insist on emphasizing “a” instead of “and.” The etymology of the word is quite simple: to prevent neighbors from envy, the French simply lowered the blinds. Such subtleties of mental organization were not characteristic of the broad Russian character, so we simply built a higher and stronger fence.
Coat– paletot: a definition of men's outerwear almost no longer used in France: warm, wide, with a collar or hood. An anachronism, so to speak.
Jacket– from toujour: always. Just everyday, “everyday” clothes.
Kartuz – from cartouche: literally “cartridge”. Actually, meaning “bag of gunpowder”, this word appeared in Russia in 1696, but it “turned” into a headdress only in the 19th century in a way completely unknown to science.
Galoshes– galoche: shoes with wooden soles. By the way, galoche has another meaning in French: passionate kiss. Think what you want.
Frock coat– from surtout: on top of everything. Oh, don't ask, we don't know and don't carry it. But yes, once upon a time a frock coat was truly outerwear.
Cap– from chapeau: comes from the Old French chape – lid.
Panama– panama: no need to explain. But what’s surprising is that Paris is often called Paname, although local residents in similar headdresses were not seen on the streets.
Masterpiece– from chef d’œuvre: master of his craft.
Chauffeur– chauffeur: originally a stoker, stoker. The one who throws firewood. But that was a long time ago, even before the advent of internal combustion engines. And by the way...
Under the influence– from the same word chauffer: to warm, to warm up. It took root in Russia, thanks to the French tutors, who were not averse to sipping a glass or two. The preposition “under” is purely Russian, often used to denote a state: under the influence, under the influence. Or... “warmed up”, if you like. And, continuing the topic of alcohol...
To sip, to splurge– from kir: an aperitif made from white wine and sweet low-proof berry syrup, most often currant, blackberry or peach. Out of habit, you can really get high on them quickly, especially if you don’t limit yourself to one or two glasses, but, according to the old Russian tradition, start abusing them as expected.
Adventure– aventure: adventure. In French it does not carry the negative connotation that the word acquired in Russian, as, in fact,...
Scam– from à faire: (to) do, do. In general, just do something useful. And not what you thought.
Wall up– from mur: wall. That is, in the literal sense of “embedding into the wall.” Catchphrase“Walled up, demons!” It could hardly have existed during the time of Ivan the Terrible, but to appear in the 17th century, thanks to Peter the Great, is quite like the word...
Job– from raboter: to finish, polish, plan, do, in short, manual labor. What’s strange is that until the 17th century such a word was not really used in Russian texts. Don’t forget, it was during the time of Peter the Great that many architects, engineers and craftsmen from Western European countries actually came to Russia. What can I say, St. Petersburg was conceived exactly according to the Parisian model. They designed, the Russians “worked”. We must also not forget that many talented and handy guys, on the orders of the same Peter, went to study the craft in other countries and could well “take” the word with them to their homeland.
Dozen– douzaine: well, twelve, as it is.
Equivocas– from equivoque: ambiguous. No, really, you couldn’t seriously think that such a strange word appeared in Russian just like that, out of nothing to do?
Barack– baraque: shack. From the common Roman word barrio - clay. And this is not at all an invention of the NEP times.
Throw away entreche- from entrechat: borrowed from Latin, and means – to weave, braid, weave, cross. According to a serious academic dictionary, entrechat is a type of leaping jump in classical ballet dance, when the dancer’s legs quickly cross in the air.
Zealous– from retif: restive. It seems one of the oldest borrowed from French words Probably back in the time of Yaroslavna.
Vinaigrette– vinaigrette: vinegar sauce, traditional salad dressing. It has nothing to do with our traditional dish of beets, sauerkraut and boiled potatoes. For the French, in general, such a combination of products seems almost fatal, just as they are not delighted with the traditional Russian borsche or, say, kvass.
Sausage– from saucisse, as, in fact, shrimp– from crevette. Well, it seems like there’s no point in talking about the broth at all. Meanwhile, bouillon – “decoction”, comes from the word bolir – “to boil”. Yeah.
Soup– soupe: an 18th-century borrowing from French, derived from the Latin suppa, “a piece of bread dipped in gravy.” Do you need to talk about canned food? – from concerver – “to preserve”. It makes no sense to talk about the word “sauce” at all.
Cutlet- côtelette, which in turn is derived from côte - rib. The fact is that in Russia they are used to using the word cutlet to designate a dish of minced meat, while the French use it to designate a piece of meat on a bone, or more precisely, pork (or lamb) on a rib.
Tomato– from pomme d’or: golden apple. Why this phrase has taken root in Russia, history is silent. In France itself, tomatoes are called tritely - tomatoes.
Compote– from componere: to fold, compose, compose, if you like. That is, collect a bunch of all kinds of fruits together.
By the way, the phraseological unit “not at ease” is a literal, but not very correct translation of the phrase ne pas être dans son assiette. The fact is that assiette is not only the plate from which one eats, but the basis, the disposition of the spirit. So, in the original, this phrase meant “to be out of spirit, not in the mood.”
Restaurant– restaurant: literally “restorative.” There is a legend that in 1765 a certain Boulanger, the owner of a Parisian tavern, hung an inviting inscription on the doors of his newly opened establishment: “Come to me and I will restore your strength.” The Boulanger tavern, where the food was tasty and relatively cheap, soon became a fashionable place. As often happens with fashionable places, the establishment received a special name from the regulars, understandable only to the initiates: “Tomorrow we’ll meet again in the Restorer!” By the way, the first restaurant in Russia, “Slavic Bazaar,” was opened in 1872 and, unlike taverns, they ate more there than simply drank.
Discourage– from courage: courage, courage. Courage in the Russian language also acquired a not entirely obvious meaning. Meanwhile, having acquired a prefix, suffix and ending, the word began to mean, in fact, what was meant: to deprive someone of confidence, courage, to lead to a state of confusion.
Concealed– from toucher: to touch, touch. Mmm... I think once upon a time, decent girls blushed and were embarrassed, embarrassed, so to speak, when particularly arrogant young men grabbed them by the knees and other parts of the body.
Trick– truc: a thing, a contraption whose name they cannot remember. Well... this is... what's his name...
Routine– from route, routine: road, path, and from it routine: skill, familiarity. Haven’t you set your teeth on edge by often walking along the same path, from work to home and vice versa? Maybe I should drop everything and start downshifting (the English word is not about that now)?
Keychain– breloque: pendant on a chain for a watch.
Furniture– meuble: literally something that moves, can be moved, moved to another place, as opposed to immeuble – real estate. Thanks again to Peter the Great for the opportunity not to indicate exactly what household items are in your property, for example the same French ones: bureau, wardrobe, dressing table, wardrobe or stool.
All-in– from va banque: literally “ the bank is coming" An expression used by card players when they suddenly suddenly began to “go over it.” Therefore, “going all-in” means taking a risk, hoping that you can get a lot.
Klyauza– from clause: condition of the contract, article of the agreement. How the slander acquired such a negative meaning is difficult to say, how and why...
District– rayon: ray. Became a place on the map, not a source of light.
Gauze– from marly: thin fabric, named after the village of Marly, now Marly-le-Roi, where it was first produced.
Brawl- débauche: debauchery, debauchery, revelry.
But the word “puzzle” appeared from the reverse translation of the word brass knuckles (cassetête) - from casse: to break and tête - head. That is, in the literal sense.
There are more than 2,000 French words in the Russian language, which we use almost every day, without even suspecting their ideologically incorrect roots. And, if we gave the Fifth Republic at least one word - “Bistro” (thanks to the Cossacks who reached Montmartre in 1814 and drank all the champagne there: “Get it quickly! Who did I tell? Quickly, motherfucker!”), then they took much more from them. The reason for this is most likely the incredible popularity of French in the 18th-19th centuries. Even the guardian of the purity of the Russian language, the Dane Vladimir Dahl, did not save. With attachés, lampshades and mufflers (cache-nez, by the way - to hide your nose) - everything is clear, but did you know, for example, that the words “turn” and “fairy” are also French?
Duty - from de jour: assigned to a certain day. For example, the classic French, seen by tourists in many cafes and bistros, plat de jour - “dish of the day”, has turned into a “daily dish” in our country.
Steering wheel, steer - from rouler: ride, rotate. There is nothing to explain here. Roll, yes, from here.
Nightmare - cauchemar: comes from two words - Old French chaucher - “to crush” and Flemish mare - “ghost”. This is the “ghost that comes at night and loves to gently lean against the sleeping people.”
Blinds - from jalouse (jalousie): envy, jealousy. Russians have never been comfortable with this word. Most people insist on emphasizing “a” instead of “and.” The etymology of the word is quite simple: to prevent neighbors from envy, the French simply lowered the blinds. Such subtleties of mental organization were not characteristic of the broad Russian character, so we simply built a higher and stronger fence.
Blowjob – minette: kitty. Well, what would we do without him! The French have a common expression “to make a cat”, but it means exactly the opposite of what it means in Russian – literally “to do cunnilingus”. One could assume that the word came from minet - kitten m.p., but it would have sounded “mine”, although who knows how our ancestors read it.
Coat - paletot: a definition of outerwear for men, almost no longer used in France: warm, wide, with a collar or hood. An anachronism, so to speak.
Jacket - from toujour: always. Just everyday, “everyday” clothes.
Kartuz – from cartouche: literally “cartridge”. Actually, meaning “bag of gunpowder”, this word appeared in Russia in 1696, but it “turned” into a headdress only in the 19th century in a way completely unknown to science.
Galoshes - galoche: shoes with wooden soles. V. Dahl's least favorite word. He suggested calling them “wet shoes,” but it didn’t catch on, it didn’t stick. Although, in St. Petersburg, probably not without the efforts of the same Dahl, the French word curb is persistently called “curb” - although even this word has Dutch roots. But that's not what we're talking about now. By the way, galoche has another meaning in French: passionate kiss. Think what you want.
Frock coat - from surtout: on top of everything. Oh, don't ask, we don't know and don't carry it. But yes, once upon a time a frock coat was truly outerwear.
Cap - from chapeau: comes from the Old French chape - lid.
Panama - panama: no need to explain. But what’s surprising is that Paris is often called Paname, although local residents in similar headdresses were not seen on the streets.
Masterpiece – from chef d’œuvre: master of his craft.
Chauffeur – chauffeur: originally a fireman, stoker. The one who throws firewood. But that was a long time ago, even before the advent of internal combustion engines. And by the way...
Podsofe - from the same word chauffer: to warm, to warm up. It took root in Russia, thanks to the French tutors, who were not averse to sipping a glass or two. The preposition “under” is purely Russian, often used to denote a state: under the influence, under the influence. Or... “warmed up”, if you like. And, continuing the topic of alcohol...
Kiryat, nakiryat - from kir: an aperitif made from white wine and sweet low-proof berry syrup, most often currant, blackberry or peach. Out of habit, you can really get high on them quickly, especially if you don’t limit yourself to one or two glasses, but, according to the old Russian tradition, start abusing them as expected.
Adventure - aventure: adventure. In French it does not carry the negative connotation that the word acquired in Russian, as, in fact,...
Scam – from à faire: (to) do, do. In general, just do something useful. And not what you thought.
Wall up - from mur: wall. That is, in the literal sense of “embedding into the wall.” The catchphrase “Walled up, demons!” It could hardly have existed during the time of Ivan the Terrible, but to appear in the 17th century, thanks to Peter the Great, is quite like the word...
Work - from raboter: finishing, sanding, planing, doing, in short, manual labor. What’s strange is that until the 17th century such a word was not really used in Russian texts. Don’t forget, it was during the time of Peter the Great that many architects, engineers and craftsmen from Western European countries actually came to Russia. What can I say, St. Petersburg was conceived exactly according to the Parisian model. They designed, the Russians “worked”. We must also not forget that many talented and handy guys, on the orders of the same Peter, went to study the craft in other countries and could well “take” the word with them to their homeland.
Dozen - douzaine: well, twelve, as it is.
Equivoques - from equivoque: ambiguous. No, really, you couldn’t seriously think that such a strange word appeared in Russian just like that, out of nothing to do?
Barak – baraque: shack. From the common Roman word barrio - clay. And this is not at all an invention of the NEP times.
Throw out entrechat - from entrechat: borrowed from Latin, and means - to weave, braid, weave, cross. According to a serious academic dictionary, entrechat is a type of leaping jump in classical ballet dance, when the dancer’s legs quickly cross in the air.
Zealous - from retif: restive. It seems to be one of the oldest borrowed words from the French language. Probably back in the time of Yaroslavna.
Vinaigrette – vinaigrette: vinegar sauce, traditional salad dressing. It has nothing to do with our traditional dish of beets, sauerkraut and boiled potatoes. For the French, in general, such a combination of products seems almost fatal, just as they are not delighted with the traditional Russian borsche or, say, kvass (how can you drink this crap?).
Sausage is from saucisse, just like shrimp is from crevette. Well, it seems like there’s no point in talking about the broth at all. Meanwhile, bouillon – “decoction”, comes from the word bolir – “to boil”. Yeah.
Soup - soupe: borrowing from French in the 18th century, derived from the Latin suppa - "a piece of bread dipped in gravy." Do you need to talk about canned food? – from concerver – “to preserve”. It makes no sense to talk about the word “sauce” at all.
Cutlet - côtelette, which in turn is derived from côte - rib. The fact is that in Russia they are used to using the word cutlet to designate a dish of minced meat, while the French use it to designate a piece of meat on a bone, or more precisely, pork (or lamb) on a rib.
Tomato – from pomme d’or: golden apple. Why this phrase has taken root in Russia, history is silent. In France itself, tomatoes are called tritely - tomatoes.
Compote - from componere: to fold, compose, compose, if you want. That is, collect a bunch of all kinds of fruits together.
By the way, the phraseological unit “not at ease” is a literal, but not very correct translation of the phrase ne pas être dans son assiette. The fact is that assiette is not only the plate from which one eats, but the basis, the disposition of the spirit. So, in the original, this phrase meant “to be out of spirit, not in the mood.”
Restaurant – restaurant: literally “restorative”. There is a legend that in 1765 a certain Boulanger, the owner of a Parisian tavern, hung an inviting inscription on the doors of his newly opened establishment: “Come to me and I will restore your strength.” The Boulanger tavern, where the food was tasty and relatively cheap, soon became a fashionable place. As often happens with fashionable places, the establishment received a special name from the regulars, understandable only to the initiates: “Tomorrow we’ll meet again in the Restorer!” By the way, the first restaurant in Russia, “Slavic Bazaar,” was opened in 1872 and, unlike taverns, they ate more there than simply drank.
Discourage - from courage: courage, courage. Courage in the Russian language also acquired a not entirely obvious meaning. Meanwhile, having acquired a prefix, suffix and ending, the word began to mean, in fact, what was meant: to deprive someone of confidence, courage, to lead to a state of confusion.
To fade away - from toucher: to touch, touch. Mmm... I think once upon a time, decent girls blushed and were embarrassed, embarrassed, so to speak, when particularly arrogant young men grabbed them by the knees and other parts of the body.
Trick - truc: a thing, a contraption whose name they cannot remember. Well... this is... what's his name...
Routine - from route, routine: road, path, and the derived from it routine: skill, habit. Haven’t you set your teeth on edge by often walking along the same path, from work to home and vice versa? Maybe I should drop everything and start downshifting (the English word is not about that now)?
Keychain – breloque: pendant on a chain for a watch.
Furniture - meuble: literally something that moves, can be moved, moved to another place, as opposed to immeuble - real estate. Thanks again to Peter the Great for the opportunity not to indicate exactly what household items are in your property, for example the same French ones: bureau, wardrobe, dressing table, wardrobe or stool.
All-in – from va banque: literally “the bank is coming.” An expression used by card players when they suddenly suddenly began to “go over it.” Therefore, “going all-in” means taking a risk, hoping that you can get a lot.
Slander - from clause: condition of the contract, article of the agreement. How the slander acquired such a negative meaning is difficult to say, how and why...
District - rayon: ray. Became a place on the map, not a source of light.
Gauze - from marly: thin fabric, after the name of the village of Marly, now Marly-le-Roi, where it was first produced.
Debauchery - debauche: debauchery, debauchery, revelry.
Nonsense - from galimatias: confusion, nonsense. There is a wonderful story that there was a certain lawyer who had to defend in court a client named Mathieu, whose rooster was stolen. At that time, meetings were conducted exclusively in Latin; the lawyer, like any Frenchman speaking another language, pronounced his speech indistinctly, confusingly, and managed to mix up words in places. Instead of "gallus Matias" - Mathieu's rooster, he said "galli Matias" - that is, Mathieu of the rooster (Mathieu, belonging to the rooster).
And a few stories that you probably know:
Chantrapa - from chantera pas: literally - will not sing. They say it happened in the 18th century at the estate of Count Sheremetyev, famous for creating the first serf theater in Russia. Of course, future opera divas and “divas” were recruited from local Matren and Grishek. The procedure for creating the future Praskovy Zhemchugovs took place as follows: a French (less often Italian) teacher gathered peasants for an audition, and if a large brown bear walked in their ears, he confidently declared - Chantera pas!
Trash - from cheval: horse. Also according to legend, the retreating French troops, severely frozen by the harsh Russian winter and tortured by partisans (also a French word, by the way), were very hungry. Horse meat, which is still considered a delicacy in France, has become almost the only source of food. For the Russians, who still had a vivid memory of the Tatar-Mongols, eating horse meat was completely unacceptable, therefore, having heard the French word cheval - horse, they did not find anything smarter than to assign this name in a derogatory sense to its consumers.
Sharomyzhnik – from cher ami: dear friend. And again a story about the War of 1812. French deserters wandered through villages and villages, begging for at least a piece of food. Of course, they bent over backwards, addressing the Russian aborigines only as “dear friend.” Well, how else could the peasants christen the unfortunate half-frozen creature, dressed in God knows what? That's right - a baller. By the way, the stable idiom “sherochka with masherochka” also appeared from cher et ma cher.
But the word “puzzle” appeared from the reverse translation of the word brass knuckles (cassetete) - from casse: to break and tete - head. That is, in the literal sense.
These are just fifty words familiar to us from childhood. And you can’t even imagine how many of them there are! Just – shhh! - don’t tell the satirist-historian Zadornov, otherwise he’ll come up with something.
Gallicisms in Russian
French culture had a significant influence on Russia. It also affected the linguistic sphere. Since the 18th century, many French words have entered the Russian dictionary. Linguists call them Gallicisms - from the Latin word gallicus - “Gallic”.
There are several areas in which words borrowed from French are most common. For example, most of the socio-political terminology: regime, bourgeois, parliament, etc. Gallicisms are also often found in the military sphere. This is a battalion, and a pistol, and artillery, and a lieutenant, and a garrison, etc.
France has always been famous for its high level of art. Therefore, it is not surprising that the terminology has taken root in the Russian language unchanged, preserving the “native” pronunciation. The usual poster, play, rehearsal, director, actor, ballet and many other words refer to Gallicisms.
The largest number of words are borrowed from the French language in everyday life. These include decorative items, furniture, food, jewelry, and clothing. These words are used almost daily. For example, a bracelet, broth, marmalade, vest, coat, toilet, etc. Even the usual “cutlet” is gallicism.
Some words were borrowed in their original meaning. However, there are also those whose subtext has changed. For example, the French affaire (“scam”) means “deal” and does not have a negative connotation
Features of words borrowed from French
Gallicisms have several phonetic features that make them easy to recognize. The first is the ending of unchangeable words with vowels -o, -e, -i. For example, manto, puree, jelly, curlers.
The second feature of Gallicisms included in the Russian language is the letter combination “ua”. It can be observed in the words bourgeoisie, veil, boudoir, gouache, accessory. In some words, this combination was transformed into “yua”, for example, “peignoir”.
Please note that in borrowed words the stress is predominantly placed on the last syllable. However, due to the endings pronounced in Russian, in some words it has shifted
The third feature is words with the syllables “bu”, “vu”, “nu”, “ryu”, “fu”. The most commonly used words in everyday speech are: dressing table, budget, bureaucracy, trick, perfume, etc. You can easily recognize Gallicisms thanks to the fourth feature: the endings -ant, -azh, -er, -ans. Thus, it becomes clear that the birthplace of the beautiful words familiar to the Russian ear: session, aerobatics, debutant, barrier, graduate student, etc. is France.
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I. Introduction Borrowing is a process as a result of which a certain foreign language element appears and is consolidated in a language (primarily a word or a full-valued morpheme. Borrowing is an integral component of the process of functioning and historical change of a language, one of the main sources of vocabulary replenishment. Borrowing increases lexical richness , serves as a source of new roots, word-forming elements and precise terms and is a consequence of the conditions of social life of mankind. What is the role of French borrowings in the Russian language? This question determined the relevance of the topic of French borrowings in the Russian language and outlined the subject of my research work: History of the formation of II. and development of the French language
The French language, which is characterized by beauty, grace and melody, belongs to the Romance group of the Indo-European family of languages. Its dialects developed at the beginning of the Middle Ages as a result of crossing the Latin of the Roman conquerors and the language of the conquered native Gauls - Gallic. French was the earliest language to acquire international significance and in the 12th and 13th centuries was the second language in importance after Latin.
For many decades, it has remained the language of diplomacy and well-educated people, and is one of the official languages of the UN and its 30 special institutions for education, science and culture. This language is used at international scientific congresses and symposia in psychology, linguistics, philosophy, law, and medicine. The world of high fashion and elite winemaking, gourmet gastronomy and sports fencing is explained in French. Historian T. Zeldin in his book “Everything about the French” notes that “the life of any of us cannot be considered complete if it does not have even the tiniest French component.
Le français
Le français est une langue romane parlée principalement en France, dont elle est originaire (la “langue d’oïl”), ainsi qu’au Canada, en Belgique et en Suisse. Le français est parlé comme deuxième ou troisième langue dans d'autres régions du monde. Ces pays ayant pour la plupart fait partie des anciens empires coloniaux français et belge.
La langue française est un attribut de souveraineté en France: la langue officielle de la République française est le français (article 2 de la Constitution de 1958). Elle est également le principal véhicule de la pensée et de la culture française dans le monde. La langue française fait l"objet d"un dispositif public d"enrichissement de la langue, avec le décret du 3 juillet 1996 relatif à l"enrichissement de la langue française.
Avec 180 millions de locuteurs francophones réels dans le monde et 220 millions de locuteurs comme seconde langue et langue étrangère le français est la sixième langue la plus parlée dans le monde. Elle est une des six langues officielles et une des deux langues de travail (avec l'anglais) de l'Organisation des Nations Unies, et langue officielle ou de travail de plusieurs organizations internationales ou régionales, dont l'Union européenne. Après avoir été la langue de l'ancien Régime français, des tsars de Russie en passant par les princes de l'Allemagne, jusqu"aux rois d'Espagne et d"Angleterre, elle demeure une importante langue de la diplomatie internationale aux côtés de l'anglais et de l'espagnol.
La langue française a cette particularité que son développement et sa codification ont été en partie l’œuvre de groupes intellectuels, comme la Pléiade, ou d’institutions, comme l’Académie française.
Histoire de la langue français
L'histoire de la langue française commence avec l'invasion des Gaules par les armées romaines sous Jules César en 52 av. J.-C. La Gaule était alors peuplée de tribus gauloises qui parlaient des langues celtiques certainement apparentées et peut-être mutuellement intelligibles. Il n'existait donc pas une mais plusieurs langues gauloises, qui n'étaient que très rarement écrites. La langue des Romains, elle, connaissait l'écriture, et en tant que langue de l'autorité et langue de prestige, elle fut peu à peu adoptée par tous au cours des siècles qui suivirent la conquête du pays en 51 av. J. -C., et ce, de façon naturelle et sans heurt.
La version romane des Serments de Strasbourg de 842 est le premier texte écrit en langue d’oïl. La première mention de l’existence d’une langue romane date de 813, lors du Concile de Tours, qui la nomme lingua romana rustica, “langue romane rustique”. Il faut attendre vers 880 pour le premier texte littéraire, la Séquence de sainte Eulalie, encore qu'on puisse considérer que la langue de ce texte est plus du picard que du français lui-même, le français ayant été un dialecte parmi plusieurs au Moyen Âge, appelé le franceis / françoys / françois alors (prononcé progressivement, puis). Paris et sa région sont le berceau historique de ce franceis qui très vite s'est enrichi par l'apport de normand, de picard, de bourguignon et des autres parlers d'oïl alentour, car au fur et à mesure que Paris prenait de l 'importance sur le plan politique, des gens de tout le pays y affluaient, important avec eux leur variante linguistique.
En 1539, l'ordonnance de Villers-Cotterêts signée par François I er impose le français comme langue du droit et de l'administration en France. Au long du XVII e siècle, le français s’impose comme langue scientifique et comme langue d’enseignement. Le Discours de la méthode (1637) de René Descartes constitue une étape importante car il s'agit d'un des premiers essais philosophiques écrits en français et non en latin comme les Méditations sur la philosophie première.
En Europe, le français devient une langue diplomatique de premier plan et est apprise par les élites. La seconde guerre mondiale constitue un tournant, tant par le massacre d’élites francophiles en Europe de l’Est, que par la montée en puissance de l"anglais comme langue véhiculaire internationale.
Le 7 January 1972, le gouvernement français promulgue le décret n o 72-9 relatif à l’enrichissement de la langue française, prévoyant la création de commissions ministérielles de terminologie pour l’enrichissement du vocabulaire français.
La révision constitutionnelle du 25 juin 1992 insère à l"article 2 de la constitution la phrase: "La langue de la République est le français."
Le 4 août 1994 à suite de la loi de 1975, est promulguée la loi dite loi Toubon qui tend à imposer l "utilisation du français dans nombre de domaines (affichage, travail, enseignement...) particulièrement dans les services publics.
La maintenance de la langue française est suivie par: l'Académie française, la Délégation générale à la langue française et aux langues de France (DGLF), le Service de la langue française (Belgique), l "Office québécois de la langue française ( OQLF), les Conseils supérieurs de la langue française de France, de Belgique et du Québec.
Les emprunts plus récents à d'autres langues sont assez nombreux: d'abord à l'anglais (même anciens: nord, sud), puis à l'italien, aux autres langues romanes, aux langues germaniques tels que l "allemand ou le néerlandais (ainsi boulevard vient du hollandais ou du flamand bolwerk). L'arabe a fourni, et fournit encore quelques mots: alcool, algèbre, toubib, bled, etc.
On estime à moins de 13% (soit 4,200 mots) les parts des mots d'origine étrangère dans la langue française courante soit environ les 35,000 mots d'un dictionnaire d'usage. Ces mots viennent de l'anglais, de l'italien, de l'ancien allemand, des anciennes langues gallo-romanes, de l'arabe, de l'allemand, de l'ancien celtique, de l'espagnol, du néerlandais, du perse (ancien persan) et du sanskrit, 101 des langues amérindiennes, de diverses langues asiatiques), 56 de diverses langues afro-asiatiques, d'autres langues diverses.
De nombreux néologismes ont également été formés à partir de mots grecs ou latins. On peut citer mètre, gramme, phobie et leurs dérivés (kilomètre, milligramme, etc.), ainsi que des mots plus récents comme cinéma, logiciel, domotique, etc.
D'autres sont des calques ou des adaptations de l'anglais, comme par exemple baladeur créé pour remplacer l"anglais walkman et diskman.
Aussi, le français se modernise et les rectifications orthographiques du français recommandées par l'Académie française elle-même pourraient être génératrices de règles précises qui devraient permettre la création de nouveaux mots: on pourrait imaginer les termes (pluriel portemusiques) pour lecteur MP3 ou walkman (termes souvent traduits baladeur), ou mangetemps à la place de time-consuming, etc. Toutefois, ces règles étant extrêmement peu suivies, y compris par la presse et le monde de l’édition, ce phénomène n’est actuellement pas notable.
III. Words borrowed from French
And now I would like to talk about some words and concepts that have become firmly established in our Russian language from French and sometimes we are not even aware of their true origin.
In the 18th century, borrowings from the French language began to become firmly established in Russian speech. In order to promote the development of literature and the literary language, as well as to direct development in the direction desired by the government, a special higher scientific institution is being created - the Russian Academy (in imitation of the French Academy in Paris). The French language - the language of the great enlighteners Voltaire, Diderot, Rousseau - at that time was the most lexically rich and stylistically developed language in Europe. Gallicisms reflect the characteristic features of the French language: prononcer, grasseyer. Gallicisms (from the Latin gallicus - Gaulish) are words and expressions borrowed from the French language or formed according to the model of French words and expressions. In the 18th - early 19th centuries, words truly imbued with the French spirit entered the Russian vocabulary: charm (charme), adultery (aduletère), visitor (visiteur), tutor (gouverneur), cavalier (cavalier), cocotte (cocotte), compliment (compliment) ), curtsy (révérence), favorite (favorite).
Gallicisms penetrate into all spheres of people's lives and activities. Particularly French borrowings have been added to the vocabulary associated with clothing: accessoire, bijouterie, veil, jabot, manteau, peignoir and food: meringue, baiser, puree ), mayonnaise. Special attention I would like to focus on Gallicisms that are associated with art - theater, music, painting. For example, the following words are associated with music: accordéon, ensemble, vocal, clarinet, nocturne, overture. There are a lot of Gallicisms associated with the theater: actor (acteur), intermission (entracte), applause (applaudissments), poster (affiche), vaudeville (vaudeville), makeup (grimer), debut (dèbut), pirouette (pirouette); as well as with painting: gallery (galerie), vernissage (vernissage), gouache (gouache), palette (palette). There are times in the history of society when some foreign culture is chosen as a role model. Its language becomes prestigious, and words from it are borrowed especially actively. The influence of the French language on Russian vocabulary was observed in both the 18th and 19th centuries. The attitude towards borrowed words as more beautiful and prestigious is characteristic of the late 20th and early 21st centuries. For example, the word boutique. In French, boutique simply means “small store,” and in Russian the word boutique began to mean “expensive store.” fashionable clothes" It is interesting that in the French language itself it was replaced by the noun magasin (shop) from Arabic, which became especially widespread in the first half of the 19th century, when the restructuring of French trade took place on new industrial grounds and the old shops (boutiques) were no longer suitable for sellers who More spacious and capacious stores were needed. And in Russian this word “has risen in rank” - has come to mean a fashion store, that is, a word that in the source language named an ordinary, ordinary object, in the borrowing language is attached to a more significant and prestigious object. It is interesting that it is from French words that characterize high society were borrowed from the language: elite (élite), bohemia (bohème), beau monde (beaumonde).
Barricade -French - barricade.
The word “barricade” has been known in Russian originally as a military engineering term since 1724 in the translation of Vauban’s book “The True Method of Strengthening Cities.” In Russian dictionaries - since 1803 and is interpreted as “a fence around the city, stone wall etc.” Now the word "barricade" is used in meaning “a barrier across a street or passage, consisting of various kinds of objects that cannot be penetrated by bullets.”
The word is borrowed from French, where barricade has been known since the end of the 16th century. and is derived from barrique - “barrel” or from barrer - “to block, block”, barre - “beam”. The French barricade became the basis for the spread of the word in other European languages.
Bow - French - bande (bandage).
The word “bow” has been known in Russian since the time of Peter the Great in the meaning of “order bow”, and also in the form of a bow - “bandage”. IN modern meaning - “ribbon or braid tied in a knot of a certain shape”- the word has been noted in dictionaries since 1780. The word is borrowed from French, where the noun bande (“bandage”) appeared under the influence of the Old German band (“tie, ribbon”).
Broth -French - bouillon.
The name "broth" is borrowed from the French language; French bouillon - "decoction" comes from the verb bouillir - "to boil". This word was borrowed in the 18th century and did not have time to change its sound.
Salad -French - salade.
The word "salad" was borrowed in the 18th century from French; The French salade goes back to the Italian salata - “salty (greens)”, derived from the Latin salare “to salt” (and this word, in turn, has the same root as the Russian “salt”).
Dessert -French - dessert.
The word "dessert", borrowed from French at the end of the 18th century, is derived from the verb desservir - "to clear the table." The French dessert originally meant “clearing the table,” and only later came to mean “the last dish, after which the table is cleared.”
Roll -French -roulade.
A "roll" is something rolled up. This word is borrowed from the French language. However, in French, what we call a roulade looks like roulade, and the word roulette means “wheel.” Both of these words are derived from the verb rouler - “to roll, roll up”. Apparently, when borrowing these two words were simply confused; in other Slavic languages (Polish, Czech) the word “roll” looks like in French - “rulada”.
Cream - French-crème.
The word "cream" was borrowed from French in the second half of the 18th century; in French this word means “cream, cream, ointment” and goes back to the Church Latin chrisma - “anointing”.
Passport -French - passeport.
The word "passport" was borrowed from French at the beginning of the 18th century.
The word “passport” came into French from Latin: passare - to pass and portus - port, harbor. A passport was a written permission to enter a port. When this word came into the Russian language (during the time of Peter I), it began to be called an identity document of a certain type. For a long time the word was used in the form “pass”.
Bas-relief -French - bas-relief (low bulge).
In Russian, the word “bas-relief” meaning “a convex sculptural image of figures or ornaments on a plane” has been spreading since the middle of the 18th century. in the form of "barylium". The “bas-relief” form was established by the beginning of the 19th century.
The word is borrowed from French. The primary source of the word in Romance languages is the Vulgar Latin bassus and the Latin relevare.
BastionFrench - bastione (bastion).
The word “bastion” has been known since the Petrine era.
It was borrowed from French, where bastione goes back to the Italian bastione - a suffixal derivative of bastia - "great fortress, tower fortification", derived from bastire - "to build". Hence the Frankish bastjane - “to surround with tyn.”
The modern bastion is a (military) “pentagonal fortification in the form of a projection in the corners of the fortress fence for shelling the area in front and along the fortress walls and ditches.”
Loaf -French - baton (stick, stick).
The word “loaf” has been known in Russian since the end of the 18th century. and was used only in the meaning of “a confectionery product in the shape of a stick, elongated.” The word is borrowed from French, where baton is “stick, stick, rod.” Initially, loaves were called “puff pastry sticks stuffed with boiled beef, etc.”, “narrow and long gingerbread with candied fruits and almonds”, etc.
The modern meaning of the word “loaf” - “a kind of elongated white bread” - arose recently, at the beginning of the 19th century. and is typical for Russian and Eastern Slavic languages, and in others it is used in its original meaning.
Boots -French - bottines.
The word “boots” appeared in Russian with mid-19th V. In dictionaries - since 1847, at first - only in the form of a female form: boot - “women's ankle boots”, as well as “gaiters, ankle boots”. Later, boots began to mean not only “women’s and children’s boots,” but also “a type of footwear worn by everyone, shoes.” The word is borrowed from French, where bottine (“shoe”) has been known since 1367 and goes back to botte (“boot”).
PaletteFrench - palette (spatula).
In Russian, the word “palette” has been known since the beginning of the 19th century. The ancient Romans used this word to describe a spatula for mixing paints. From Latin the word came into French, from there into German, and only then into Russian. By the 19th century The word “palette” began to mean a flat board for storing and mixing paints when drawing.
IV. Conclusion
In relation to borrowed words, two extremes often collide: on the one hand, the oversaturation of speech with foreign words and expressions, on the other, their denial, the desire to use only the original word.
Borrowed words enrich our speech, make it more accurate, and sometimes economical. In our turbulent age, the flow of new ideas, things, information, technologies requires quick naming of objects and phenomena, forces us to involve already existing foreign names in the language, and not to expect the creation of original words on Russian soil. It is known that now, of the entire wealth of the Russian language, borrowed words make up only about 10%.
It should be noted that Russian words are also borrowed by other languages. Moreover, at different periods of our history, not only such Russian words as samovar, borscht, cabbage soup, cranberry, but such as satellite, advice, perestroika, glasnost. Success Soviet Union in space exploration contributed to the fact that the terms of this sphere that were born in our language were adopted by other languages: astronaut, lunar rover.
While working on this project, I realized how important it is to know where, from what language, a particular word came into the Russian language. To trace its evolution, to understand how much the history of a people is connected with its language and how different peoples are interconnected not only by common historical events, but also by the development of their vocabulary.
And we should always remember the words of Leo Tolstoy: “You don’t need to renounce foreign words, but you don’t need to abuse them either.”
V.Bibliography
La langue française - http://www.languefrancaise.net/
La Bibliothèque nationale - http://www.bnf.fr/fr/acc/x.accueil.html
Skrelina L.M. History of the French language: textbook. for bachelors / L.M. Skrelina, L.A. Stanovaya. - 2nd ed. - M.: Yurayt, 2006. - 463 p.
Taken vocabulary in the Russian language
Words of non-original origin are called taken. Borrowings arise both as a result of specific territorial contacts and as a result of the exchange of cultural information, when, together with new objects and concepts, native speakers receive words denoting them. Borrowings are used not only to name new realities, but also to rename old ones.
The following borrowings in the Russian language are highlighted:
Note. This answer is devoted to borrowings from non-Slavic languages. There is information about borrowings from Slavic languages detailed information in the answer “What is the composition of the vocabulary of the Russian language?”
The taken words can be distinguished from eternal Russian words by a number of characteristics.
A. Phonetic features:
1. Presence of the initial letter “a”: lampshade, April, red, army, pharmacy. Russian words with the initial “a”, in this case, not counting words formed on the basis of borrowings, are found occasionally. Basically, these are interjections, onomatopoeias and words formed on their basis: yeah, ah, ah, ah, gasp, ah, echo etc.
2. The presence of the letter “e” in the root of the word: mayor, aloe, emotions, phaeton. In eternal Russian words, the letter “e” is found in words of interjection and pronominal character - hey, eh, this one, because, also in words formed in the Russian language on the basis of borrowings ( some, Ensky, Socialist Revolutionary).
3. The presence of the letter “f” in the word: decanter, spacesuit, February. The exceptions are interjections, onomatopoeia - ugh, ugh, fi, also a word owl.
4. The presence of combinations of two or more vowels in the roots of words: diet, duel, halo, poem, guard.
5. The presence of combinations of consonants “kd”, “kz”, “gb”, “kg” in the roots of words: joke, station, barrier, warehouse.
6. The presence of combinations “ge”, “ke”, “he” in the root: legend, sneakers, trachea. In Russian words, such combinations usually occur at the junction of the base and ending: on the road, to my daughter-in-law, in the sand.
7. Availability of combination "bu", "vu", "kyu", "mu" in the roots of words: bureau, engraving, ditch, communiqué.
8. The presence of double consonants in the roots of words: villa, progress, profession, session, bath. In ancient Russian words, double consonants are found only at the junction of morphemes.
9. Pronunciation of a hard consonant sound before the vowel [e] (letter “e”): model[de], test [te].
10. The original “e” distinguishes mainly Greek and Latinisms: era, epoch, ethics, exam, reprisal, effect, floor.
B. Morphological characteristics:
1. Indeclinability of nouns: coffee, jury, depot, hummingbird, kangaroo.
2. Morphological lack of expression of number and gender of nouns: coat, taxi.
B. Word-formation features:
1. Foreign language prefixes: inter shaft, de duction, in individualism, re gress, archi mandrit, counter admiral, anti Christ.
2. Foreign language suffixes: dean at, stud ent, technician intelligence, editor torus, writer ur ah, proletarians at, popul change, social ist, controversy edit etc.
3. The presence of certain class roots aqua-, marine-, geo-, graphic- etc.: aquarium, marine painter, surveyor.
In addition to “international” signs, there are also signs that help to find which specific language the word was taken from.
1. TO Greek borrowings ( Greekisms) include, for example:
Features of borrowings from this group:
2. Borrowings from Latin language(Latinisms):
3. In the middle Turkic borrowings ( Turkisms) most words from the Mongolian language, which is explained by historical criteria (long-term Tatar-Mongol yoke):
A sign of words of Turkic origin is vowel harmony ( synharmonism) - the natural use in one word of vowels of only the 1st row: back [a], [y] or frontal [e], [i]: ataman, caravan, pencil, boot, lasso, chest, sundress, drum, heel, sash, ulus, mosque, beads.
4. Scandinavian The number of borrowings (Swedish, Norwegian) in the Russian language is comparatively small. Words of trade vocabulary, maritime definitions, everyday words, also penetrated:
5. TO Germanic borrowings ( Germanisms) include:
Features of Germanisms:
6. Dutch are some nautical definitions taken in the era of Peter I: buer, shipyard, pennant, harbour, drift, pilot, sailor, raid, flag, fleet,cruiser etc.
7. From British language ( Anglicisms) included, for example:
technical ( computer, screen, file, byte),
sports ( bobsled, overtime, fighter),
monetary and commercial ( barter, broker, dealer, distributor, leasing),
arts ( remake, talk show, underground, thriller),
Phonetic features of Anglicisms:
8. TO French borrowings ( Gallicisms) include:
Phonetic features of Gallicisms:
9. From Italian borrowings are highlighted:
10. A small number of words came from Spanish language (vocabulary related to art): serenade, castanets, guitar, mantilla, caravel, caramel, cigar, tomato etc.
11. Few borrowings are from Finnish language: walrus, dumplings, blizzard; from Hungarian: bekesha, farm and other languages.
Information about the origin of words can be obtained in etymological dictionaries and in dictionaries of foreign words.
Additionally:
Sources:
Additionally on the site: