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Introduction.

Among the first small mammals - insectivores - in the Mesozoic era a group of animals emerged that did not have sharp teeth and claws, nor wings, nor hooves. They lived both on the ground and in trees, eating fruits and insects. From this group originated the branches that led to prosimians, monkeys and humans.

Parapithecus is considered the oldest great ape, from which the ancestors of humans originated. These ancient, low-specialized apes diverged into two branches: one leading to modern gibbons and orangutans, the other to Dryopithecus, an extinct arboreal ape. Dryopithecus diverged in three directions: one branch led to chimpanzees, another to gorilla and the third to humans. Humans and apes are closely related. But these are different branches of a common genealogical trunk.

Scientists suggest that the ancestral home of humanity was somewhere in the territory that includes northeastern Africa, South Asia, and southeastern Europe, from where people settled throughout the Earth.

What were the original forms from which the most ancient people originated? To date, such forms have not been discovered, but an idea of ​​them is given by a well-studied group of South African monkeys - Australopithecus (“Australus” - southern). This group lived on Earth at the same time as the earliest people, and therefore cannot be considered the direct ancestors of people.

Australopithecines lived among rocks on flat, treeless spaces, were bipedal, walked slightly bent over, and knew meat; their skull had a volume of approximately 650 cm 3 .

In the early 60s of this century, the English scientist Louis Leakey found fragments of skulls, bones of the hand, foot, lower leg, and collarbone in the Oldovai Gorge on the territory of modern Tanzania (East Africa). The fossil creatures to which they belonged were somewhat closer to humans in the structure of the foot and hand than australopithecines, but their brain volume did not exceed 650 cm 3 . Pointed pebbles and stones that gave the impression of being artificially processed were also found there. According to most Soviet anthropologists, these creatures should also be considered australopithecines. Morphologically they differed little from apes. The difference was the emergence of the first glimpses of consciousness associated with the use of natural objects as tools, which prepared the transition to their manufacture.

It is believed that the ancestors of the most ancient people were a species of bipedal apes close to the African australopithecus, in which, based on hereditary variability in the process natural selection developed the ability to frequently and variedly use sticks and stones as tools.

In the process of human development, three stages or phases should be distinguished: 1) the earliest people, 2) the ancient people and 3) the first modern people.

1. The origin of man.

F. Engels on the role of labor in the transformation of ancient monkeys into humans. Deep, qualitative differences between humans and apes are associated with the social-labor (social) activities of people. Distinctive feature human – the creation and use of tools. With their help, he changes his environment and produces what he needs; animals use only what is given by nature. The use of tools sharply reduced man's dependence on nature, weakened the effect of natural selection. In the process of labor (joint hunting, making tools), people united, which created the need for communication and led to the emergence of speech as a method of this communication. Under the influence of work and speech, “the monkey’s brain gradually turned into a human brain, which, despite all its similarities with the monkey’s, far surpasses it in size and perfection.” The development of the brain and sense organs, the improvement of consciousness “had the opposite effect on work and on language, giving both more and more new impetuses to further development» (F. Engels, K. Marx Works. 2nd ed. T. 20. P. 490).
Engels was the first to point out the role of labor as a decisive factor in the development of man. Labor, in his words, is “... the first basic condition of all human life, and, moreover, to such an extent that we, in a certain sense, must say: labor created man himself.” (Marx K., Engels F. Works. 2nd ed. T. 20 P. 486). Data from modern anthropology have confirmed F. Engels' theory about the role of labor in the origin of man. Over the course of many millions of years, there was a selection of individuals capable of using tools, more savvy, with more dexterous hands. Along the entire path of the human fossil record, the remains of our distant ancestors are accompanied by the remains of tools of varying degrees of complexity.
All the conditions of the material and spiritual life of modern man are the products of the labor of many generations of people.
Prerequisites for anthropogenesis. It is assumed that the common ancestors of apes and humans are gregarious, tree-dwelling monkeys in tropical forests. Their transition to a terrestrial way of life, caused by climate cooling and the displacement of forests by steppes, led to upright walking. The straightened position of the body and the transfer of the center of gravity caused the restructuring of the arched spinal column, characteristic of all four-legged animals, into an S-shaped one, which gave it flexibility. An arched springy foot formed, the pelvis expanded, rib cage became wider and shorter, the jaw apparatus was lighter, and most importantly, the forelimbs were freed from the need to support the body, their movements became freer and more varied, and their functions became more complex.
The transition from using objects to making tools is the boundary between apes and humans. The evolution of the hand proceeded through natural selection of mutations useful for labor activity. Thus, the hand is not only an organ of labor, but also its product. The first tools were hunting and fishing tools. Along with plant foods, higher calorie meat foods began to be used more widely. Food cooked over fire reduced the load on the chewing and digestive apparatus, and therefore the parietal ridge, to which the chewing muscles are attached in monkeys, lost its importance and gradually disappeared during the selection process, and the intestines became shorter. Along with upright walking, the most important prerequisite for anthropogenesis was a herd lifestyle, which, with the development of work activity and the need to exchange signals, led to the development of articulate speech. Slow selection of mutations transformed the undeveloped larynx and oral apparatus of monkeys into human speech organs. The root cause of the emergence of language was the social and labor process. Work, and then articulate speech, are the factors that controlled the genetically determined evolution of the human brain and sense organs. And this, in turn, led to the complication of work activity. Concrete ideas about surrounding objects and phenomena were generalized into abstract concepts, and mental and speech abilities developed. Higher nervous activity was formed, and articulate speech developed. Transition to upright walking, herd lifestyle, high level development of the brain and psyche, the use of objects as tools for hunting and protection - those prerequisites for humanization, on the basis of which work activity, speech and thinking developed and improved.
Predecessors of man. At the beginning of the Cenozoic, more than 40 million years ago, the first primates appeared. Several branches of evolution separated from them, leading to modern apes, other primates and humans. Modern apes are not the ancestors of humans, but descend from common ancestors with them, already extinct - the terrestrial apes - dryopithecus. They appeared 17 - 18 million years ago, at the end of the Neogene, and died out about 8 million years ago. They lived in tropical forests. Some of their populations apparently laid the foundation for the evolution of man, his predecessors, the australopithecines.

2. The most ancient people.

The transition from fossil apes to humans took place through a series of intermediate creatures that combined the features of apes and humans - ape people. It is believed that they appeared at the beginning of the Anthropocene, i.e. about a million years ago.

Pithecanthropus means "monkey man". His remains were first discovered by the Dutch doctor Dubois in 1891 on the island. Java. Pithecanthropus walked on two legs, leaning slightly forward and possibly leaning on a club. He was about 170 tall cm, his skull was the same length and width as that of a modern person, but lower and consisted of thick bones. Brain volume reached 900 cm 3 : The forehead is very sloping, there is a continuous ridge of bone above the eyes. The jaws protruded strongly forward, there was no chin protrusion.

Pithecanthropus created the first tools from stone, which were found in the same layers as bones. These are primitive scrapers and drills. There is no doubt that Pithecanthropus used sticks and branches as tools. The most ancient people thought and invented.

The emergence of labor turned out to be a powerful impetus for the development of the brain. Darwin attached exceptional importance to high mental development our ancestors, even the most ancient ones. The development of the mind took a big step forward with the emergence of speech. According to F. Engels, the rudiments of speech arose among the most ancient people in the form of inarticulate sounds that had the meaning of various signals.

Interesting finds Sinanthropa- “Chinese man”, who lived somewhat later than Pithecanthropus. His remains were found in 1927–1937. near Beijing.

Externally, Sinanthropus resembled Pithecanthropus in many ways: a low forehead, with a developed brow ridge, a massive lower jaw, large teeth, and no chin protrusion.

According to scientific data, primitive people appeared about 4 million years ago. Over the course of many millennia, they evolved, that is, they improved not only in terms of development but also in appearance. Historical anthropology divides primitive people into several species, which successively replaced each other. What are the anatomical features of each type of primitive people, and in what period of time did they exist? Read about all this below.

Primitive people - who are they?

The most ancient people lived in Africa more than 2 million years ago. This is confirmed by numerous archaeological finds. However, it is known for certain that for the first time humanoid creatures moving confidently on their hind limbs (and this is the most important feature in defining a primitive person) appeared much earlier - 4 million years ago. This characteristic of ancient people, such as upright walking, was first identified in creatures to which scientists gave the name “australopithecus.”

As a result of centuries of evolution, they were replaced by the more advanced Homo habls, also known as “homo habilis.” He was replaced by humanoid creatures, whose representatives were called Homo erectus, which translated from Latin means “upright man.” And only after almost one and a half million years did more perfect look primitive man, who most resembled the modern intelligent population of the Earth - Homo sapiens or “reasonable man”. As can be seen from all of the above, primitive people slowly, but at the same time very effectively developed, mastering new opportunities. Let us consider in more detail what all these human ancestors were, what their activities were and what they looked like.

Australopithecus: external features and lifestyle

Historical anthropology classifies Australopithecus as one of the very first apes to walk on their hind limbs. The origin of this kind of primitive people began in East Africa more than 4 million years ago. For almost 2 million years, these creatures spread across the continent. The oldest man, whose height was on average 135 cm, weighed no more than 55 kg. Unlike monkeys, australopithecines had more pronounced sexual dimorphism, but the structure of the canines in male and female individuals was almost the same. The skull of this species was relatively small and had a volume of no more than 600 cm3. The main activity of Australopithecus was practically no different from that which is carried out modern monkeys, and was reduced to food production and protection from natural enemies.

A skilled person: features of anatomy and lifestyle

(translated from Latin as “skillful man”) as a separate independent species anthropoids appeared 2 million years ago on the African continent. This ancient man, whose height often reached 160 cm, had a more developed brain than that of Australopithecus - about 700 cm 3. The teeth and fingers of the upper limbs of Homo habilis were almost completely similar to those of humans, but the large brow ridges and jaws made it look like monkeys. In addition to gathering, a skilled person hunted using stone blocks, and knew how to use processed tracing paper to cut up animal carcasses. This suggests that Homo habilis is the first humanoid creature with labor skills.

Homo erectus: appearance

The anatomical characteristic of the ancient humans known as Homo erectus was a marked increase in cranial volume, which led scientists to claim that their brains were comparable in size to those of modern humans. and the jaws of Homo habilis remained massive, but were not as pronounced as those of their predecessors. The physique was almost the same as that of a modern person. Judging by archaeological finds, Homo erectus led and knew how to make fire. Representatives of this species lived in fairly large groups in caves. The main occupation of skilled man was gathering (mainly for women and children), hunting and fishing, and making clothes. Homo erectus was one of the first to realize the need to create food reserves.

appearance and lifestyle

Neanderthals appeared much later than their predecessors - about 250 thousand years ago. What was this ancient man like? His height reached 170 cm, and his skull volume was 1200 cm 3. In addition to Africa and Asia, these human ancestors also settled in Europe. Maximum quantity Neanderthals in one group reached 100 people. Unlike their predecessors, they had rudimentary forms of speech, which allowed their fellow tribesmen to exchange information and interact more harmoniously with each other. The main occupation of this was hunting. Their success in obtaining food was ensured by a variety of tools: spears, long pointed fragments of stones that were used as knives, and traps dug in the ground using stakes. Neanderthals used the resulting materials (hides, skins) to make clothing and shoes.

Cro-Magnons: the final stage of the evolution of primitive man

Cro-Magnons or (Homo Sapiens) - this is the last known to science the oldest man, whose height already reached 170-190 cm. The external resemblance of this type of primitive people to monkeys was almost imperceptible, since the brow ridges were reduced, and the lower jaw no longer protruded forward. Cro-Magnons made tools not only from stone, but also from wood and bone. In addition to hunting, these human ancestors were engaged in agriculture and initial forms animal husbandry (tamed wild animals).

The level of thinking of the Cro-Magnons was significantly higher than their predecessors. This allowed them to create cohesive social groups. The herd principle of existence was replaced by the tribal system and the creation of the rudiments of socio-economic laws.

There is such a thing as "anthropogenesis", which is part of the biochemical revolution that led the monkey from the jungle to a completely independent human individual, which at that time differed from all others in the ability to speak, work, and produce something. The species Homo Sapiens has consciousness, and this is the main thing that distinguishes people on at the moment from animals and other inhabitants of planet Earth.

Children by school curriculum go through the stages of human evolution in history, biology and science lessons. The person who laid the foundation for the study of man and the theory of his origin was the well-known Carl Linnaeus back in the 18th century, comparing ape and man. Further, already in the 19th century, Boucher de Perta found various kinds tools and tools that belonged to humans, right around the time when there were still mammoths on the planet. This refuted the divine theory of the creation of the world. But only Charles Darwin managed to make a real revolution in the study of the emergence of life on Earth. Already at the end of the 19th century, the works of Darwin appeared, which stated that man, one way or another, is part of nature, he did not just appear by wave magic wand. Man and ape had a common ancestor.

Evolution is presented rather not linearly, but bush-like, since, of course, not all species of Dryopithecus eventually led to Australopithecus. There are six stages of human development in total:

1. Dryopithecus.
2. Australopithecus.
3. The oldest man.
4. Ancient man or Neanderthal.
5. Cro-Magnon.
6. Modern man.

This article discusses two species: ancient man and Neanderthal, their similarities and differences.

Ancient man

Ancient man, also called Homo erectus, included many different subspecies. The main ones are Pithecanthropus and Sinanthropus.

He did not follow the example of his ancestors and decided to develop new territories: in the west they reached Spain, in the east - Indonesia. The above-mentioned Sinanthropus lived in China, and Pithecanthropus settled on the shores of the Java Sea, in what is now Thailand and Indonesia. Some remains of the predecessors of Neanderthals were found even near the Caucasus, closer to the Russian Plain.

Scientists consider this species to be the direct ancestor of humans.. The height of Homo erectus was about one and a half meters, plus or minus 10 centimeters. The face was already becoming more human-like, but the archal type of skull structure was still observed. They got their name for a reason: their difference from Homo habilis was their upright walking, which brought them a lot closer to evolution.

(what is their name in Latin) actively used a variety of tools, ate not only plant foods, but also ate meat, and their diet included meat and large animals. And humans too, because Homo erectus engaged in cannibalism. Scientists believe that this was not forced cannibalism; sometimes erectus quite deliberately hunted their fellows.

They dressed in the skins of a variety of animals living on their territory. Another distinctive property is the development and taming of fire. Thus, our ancestors had the opportunity to cook on fire, fry and boil food.

Ancient people

They were replaced Neanderthals. Their height was 165-175 cm, they were distinguished by wide brow ridges, also wide cheekbones, a rather large nose and rather short arms, somewhat reminiscent of paws.

It should be noted that Neanderthals had even larger brains than modern humans! There are also suggestions that Neanderthals could speak. Of course, their speech, if there was one, was significantly different from modern speech. However, it was nevertheless a huge step in human development.

They lived, judging by the location of the remains, in the region of Eastern and Western Europe, Africa, the Caucasus and even the Near, or even the Middle East.

Neanderthals already preferred to live in self-built huts, which most likely were divided into rooms: there was a kitchen, a special workshop for making tools, and a bedroom-living room.

If, by the way, we talk about tools, then the Neanderthals made quite a lot of progress in this matter, as a variety of spears and axes began to appear, which helped them simplify hunting animals, butchering them and cooking them. They already knew how to use fire, this was a gift to them from Homo erectus.

Differences and similarities between ancient man and Neanderthals

First of all, this is, of course, more developed skeleton. It has already been said above that average height Neanderthals exceeded the height of Sinanthropus and Pithecanthropus by about 10-15 cm, the size of the skull was many times larger, and the brain was even larger in size than the brain of modern humans. It is worth noting that the first, unlike all predecessors of these two species, began to walk with a straight back.

Their habitats are not particularly different, this is their obvious similarity. Another similarity is the ability to cook and use fire; even a skilled person did not have this.

Ancient people, unlike Homo erectus, have speech; the language of the Neanderthals is very similar to a mixture of some modern languages, in which there are many times fewer vowel sounds than consonants.

Neanderthals have a much more developed and perfect consciousness: they had some ideas about art, similarities were found musical instruments, cave paintings and even something like sculpture! Although, perhaps, sculpture is too strong a word for their sculptures.

Conclusion

Despite significant differences in both the lifestyle and diet of these two representatives different stages human evolution, they still have some similarities.

History lesson in 5th grade

Goals: bring students to the understanding that the ability to work put ancient people in a more advantageous position compared to the rest of the animal world and helped them survive; continue to develop the skills to retell the content of the textbook text, work with it, a historical map and illustrations; correctly use and explain historical terms.

Equipment: world map, history atlases Ancient world, table illustrating the theory of the origin of man from the ape, plaster copy of the head ancient man(taken from the biology classroom).

Lesson progress

I. Organizational moment

Information for teachers

Since in the course of the history of the Ancient World the teacher continues to work on developing students’ ability to speak competently and beautifully, at each lesson it is advisable to ask students to give detailed, detailed answers to one or two main questions homework in front of your classmates. To better prepare this task, the teacher can prepare a special card in which the question itself will be formulated and a detailed plan for answering it will be given. The question is asked to the whole class, and one of the students will prepare and answer it. Having announced the task, it is necessary to give the student time to prepare it. While the student is preparing, the teacher and the class organize other forms of checking homework.

1. Preparation of an oral response on card No. 1.

CARD No. 1

Prepare a detailed answer to the question: “How do scientists learn about the lives of people in the distant past?”

To do this, remember:

—Who are called archaeologists?

— How do archaeologists work?

— How are archaeological sites found?

— What is called a historical source?

Draw a conclusion.

Sample student answer

In order to find out how people lived in the distant past, you need to use the finds of archaeologists. Archaeologists are scientists who reconstruct history from material monuments. Before leaving for excavations, they study the literature of the area where research is proposed. They then conduct reconnaissance of the area. After this they begin excavation. They dig with shovels, removing thin layers of earth. Collected material processed and studied. The finds of archaeologists are physical monuments of history or historical sources.

2. Frontal conversation with the class on issues.

— Give a definition of the concept “Worldwide or General history». (The past of the peoples of the whole world from ancient times to the present day is called General History.)

- What is the name of the first part? World history? (History of the Ancient World.)

— What does the history of the Ancient World study? (The history of the Ancient World studies the life of primitive people, the civilizations of Egypt, India, China, Greece and Rome.)

3. The student’s detailed answer on card No. 1, checking the completion of task No. 1 in the workbooks.

III. Moving to a new topic

So, we found out that with the help of archeology and others historical sources scientists obtain scientific information about the lives of people in the distant past. We will begin our study of the history of the Ancient World by getting to know the life of primitive people.

— How did the ancient people live?

IV. Studying new topic

Plan

1) The appearance of distant ancestors.

2) The first tool.

3) Hunting and mastering fire.

On the board: topic of the lesson, new words: tools, human herd, digging stick, chopper.

1. Teacher's story.

According to scientific data, primitive people appeared on Earth more than 2 million years ago. Humans descended from monkeys (but not from those that now live in the southern forests, but from long-extinct monkeys whose bones are found in the ground).

2. Work on the map (p. 7 Vigasin or p. 15 Mikhailovsky).

—Where did the most ancient people live? (In East and Northeast Africa, Eurasia except its northern part.)

— Where are traces of their life not found? (In America and Australia.)

- Why do you think? (People in those distant times could only live in warm places with rich and varied flora and fauna.)

3. Independent work students with textbook illustrations.

Exercise: look at the drawings (p. 8 by Vigasin or p. 13 by Mikhailovsky) and describe the appearance of the most ancient people.

4. Conversation on issues.

— How did ancient people differ from people of our time? (The ancient people were very different from modern people: they were covered with hair, looked like a monkey, had a rough face, with a wide flattened nose, protruding jaws, a forehead extending back. There was a roller above the eyes, under which the eyes were hidden. This man still could not speak. )

— How did ancient people differ from monkeys? (The ability to make primitive tools: sharpened stones and digging sticks.)

— What is called a tool? (A tool is what a person uses to work.)

(This definition is given by the teacher and written on the board, by the children in their notebooks.)

—What could primitive people do with these tools? (Crack a nut, cut down clubs with a stone, sharpen digging sticks, kill some small animal, protect yourself from attacks from predators...)

5. Work with the text of the textbook (p. 9 Vigasin or p. 18-19 Mikhailovsky).

Exercise: find out how the earliest people hunted.

6. Working with new terms.

Human herd - the oldest group of people in which they worked and passed on their skills by inheritance.

7. Teacher's story.

Think about how people could master fire? Listen to the children's arguments. Ask the children to rub their palms: “What do you feel? Warm?" A man experienced something similar when he rubbed pieces of dry wood against each other for a long time, they began to smolder and a fire gradually appeared... But a person will not learn this soon, but for now he had to tame the fire and continuously watch the fire. If the “man on duty” failed to cope, terrible things happened...

8. Working with fiction.

Read an excerpt from D’Hervilly’s book “The Adventure of a Prehistoric Boy.” Stop reading at one of the interesting places and ask for a continuation in the next lesson. This technique is often an incentive to work with additional sources of information. For example, a quote from the above book.

“... Krek told everything that happened to them, why they could not return to the cave in time. He tried to pity the old people.

“We hoped to get a lot of food for everyone,” the boy finished his story, gasping, “and only then did I leave the cave.” When leaving, I made sure that the fire would not go out, but would live until we returned.

“The fire is dead...” one boss grumbled. - And may he be avenged.

Krek and Ojo looked around in confusion. Wild cries screaming for revenge grew louder and louder. The brothers looked in vain for a glimmer of pity on the faces of the elders and hunters. All faces were distorted with despair and rage, and fierce determination shone in all their glances.

The oldest chief stood up, walked up to the children, grabbed them by the hands and...”

V. Consolidation of the studied material

1. Workbook(issue 1), task No. 2 (p. 3).

2. Fill in the missing words.

— The most ancient people lived on Earth more than... years ago. (Two million years ago.)

— The main difference between ancient people and animals was... (ability to work).

— The oldest tools were... (stone, digging stick).

— The ancient people had two main ways of obtaining food... (gathering, hunting).

VI. Summing up the lesson

Homework: read § 1 Vigasin or § 1 Mikhailovsky; prepare a detailed answer to the question: “How did the most ancient people live?”; know the definition of the concepts “tools of labor” and “human herd”; think about what the expression “labor created man” means?

Additional material

During its formation, humanity went through three stages. The first stage in the development of human fossil ancestors is represented by australopithecines, whose fossil remains were first found in South America, which is why they received the name southern monkeys (from lat. australis- southern and Greek. pitekos- monkey).

Australopithecines were approximately the same size as a modern chimpanzee, they walked on two legs, and their gait was already completely balanced. Australopithecines also differed from apes in the structure of their hands: they thumb was more developed and contrasted, like in humans, with the rest of the fingers. And finally, the main difference between Australopithecines was their labor activity and the manufacture of tools. They used animal bones, wood and stone as materials. The most ancient tools made of stone that have reached us are rough nodules with cutting edge. The second stage in the formation of humanity is the era of Pithecanthropus (from the Greek pitekos - monkey and anthropos - man). Their brain volume reaches up to 1000 cm 3 (in australopithecus it is 600-650 cm 3). With an increase in brain volume and the development of its frontal lobes, the sloping of the forehead and brow ridges decreased. The tools of labor of Pithecanthropus were very diverse. They learned to make hand axes, various scrapers, and crude chopping tools with one working edge. With such tools, Pithecanthropus could drive large animals. They could already use fire. The third stage is associated with the Neanderthals (from the name of the Neanderthal Valley in Germany). The first Neanderthals appeared, apparently, 250-300 thousand years ago, and in their structure they already resembled modern humans. The range of Neanderthal stone tools became even more diverse. Points, punctures, points appeared. The materials used were wood, bones of large animals and skins. Skins were also used as primitive clothing for protection from the cold.

The considered three stages of the formation of humanity preceded the appearance of people modern type(Cro-Magnons), with whom the process of the formation of humanity ends and true human history begins.

Encyclopedic dictionary of a young historian. M., 1994. pp. 386-387.