6.2. Conversational sign language of the deaf as an example of a sign system that replaces natural language There is no doubt that not all of our thinking is verbal. However, the following is undeniable. In order for the child's intellect to develop normally, the child must

[χ] is an allophone of /k/ before /t/.

sound laws

Writing

• Lugano alphabet used in Cisalpine Gaul:

AEIKLMNOPRSTΘUVXZ the Lugano alphabet does not distinguish between voiced and voiceless stops, i.e. P represents /b/ or /r/, T for /r/ or /t/, for K /r/ or /k/. Z, probably to /c/. U/U/ and V/W/ differ only in one early inscription. Θ probably to /t/ and X to /r/ (Lejeune 1971, Solinas 1985).

• Eastern Greek alphabet used in southern Gaul Transalpina:

αβγδεζηθικλμνξοπρστυχω χ is used for [χ], θ for /ts/, ου for /u/, /u/, /b/, η and ω for both long and short /e/, /e/ and /o/, /o/ , and ι for short /i/ and ει for /i/. Note that Sigma in Eastern Greek is C (so-called crescent sigma). All Greek letters were used except phi and psi.

• Latin alphabet (monumental and cursive), was used most actively in Roman Gaul, except for its southern part, although there is also lat. by orff. texts:

ABCDÐEFGHIKLMNOPQRSTUVXZ abcdðefghiklmnopqrstuvxz

G and K are sometimes used interchangeably (especially after R). Ð /ð , ds and s may represent t /t s /. x, x it is [χ] or /ks/. Q is used in rare cases (e.g. Sequanni, Equos) and may be archaic (preserved *k w) or, as in Latin, be an alternative spelling of the syllable -cu-(for original /kuu/, /kou/, or /kom-u/). Ð and ð are used here to represent the so-called tau gallicum(Gaulish dental affricate), the exact character was never added to Unicode. Unlike the style for Ð, the central line extends right in the middle through the style tau gallicum and also does not peek through the symbol. Also indicative is the use of such a letter as iota longa, for long i. This sound is transliterated either as a title. lat. "I", or lowercase "i" with an acute sign. It is still unclear to what extent the long vowels ē and ō were transmitted by the Greek letters Η "ita" and Ω "omega"; there is reason to think that they, at least in some cases, did not convey a special number, but quality designated vowels: “ita” is a long/short closed /ẹ/ or /i/, and “omega” is a long/short closed /ọ/ or /u/.

The name ARAÐROVNA on the tomb, shows the use of the so-called. tau gallicum(here the letter is doubled). Museums Cour d'Or, Metz.

Morphology

Name

In Gaulish there were up to 6 or 7 declensions. The most reliable information about the declension of the two most frequent nominal stems: with thematic -a and -o. An empty cell means a lack of information.

Data on other declinations is more fragmentary, but in general the picture looks like this:

In some cases, there is a historical evolution, for example, dates. units the numbers r at a-stems -āi in the oldest inscriptions, becoming first *-ăi and finally -ī (as in Irish a-stems nouns with weakened (weak) consonants: im. lámh "hand, arm" ( cf. Gallic lāmā) and Danish láimh (< *lāmi; cравн. галльск. lāmāi >*lāmăi > lāmī). Further, instrumentalis pl. numbers began to mix with dates. pl. numbers (dat. atrebo and matrebo vs. instr. gobedbi and suiorebe), and in modern. insular Celtic languages ​​it is known that the historical. the form of the instrumental completely replaced the ist. dative

Regarding o-stems, Gaulish also received an innovation - a pronominal ending in the forms nom. sq. -oi and gen. sing. -ī instead of the expected -ōs and -os retained in Celtiberian (-oś, -o). In a-bases, the inherited gene. sing. -as is attested, but later changed to -ias like the Insular Celtic dialects. The expected pluralis genitive in -a-om is not found, but a form in -anom (vs. Celtiberian archaic -aum) is attested in the Larzac text.

Verbs

The verb so far, despite the noticeable progress in the study of the language, is known worse than the name: the forms of presence (thematic and athematic - see below), preterite (sigmatic, reduplicated, and formed with the help of the suffix -u-) are noted; mediopassive is characterized by the element -r-. The relative forms of the finite verb have also become known. The verb system shows a number of innovations compared to the reconstructed common Celtic state. The Indo-European s-aorist developed into the so-called Gaulish t-preterite, which was formed by the merger of the old ending of the 3rd person singular. imperfect numbers - t- with the perfect ending of the 3rd person singular. numbers - u or - e and subsequent affixation with all forms of the t-preterite. Similarly, the s-preterite was formed by expanding - ss(initially also 3rd person singular) and affixing - it to the 3rd person singular. numbers (to distinguish as such). The 3rd person plural is also marked by adding a post-positive -s in the past tense.

Calendar from Coligny

Month of Samonios

Conjugation

Lead plate with the largest Gaulish inscription from l'Hospitalet-du-Larzac. preserved in the museum of the city of Millau (Aveyron).

The conjugation of the verb in Gaulish is still not very well known, despite the finds of large texts from 1974-1997. Apparently, in Gaulish, like, for example, ancient Greek, Indo-European verbs in -mi(athematic) and on -o(thematic). Gaulish had 5 moods: real, subjunctive, desirable, imperative, and in addition an indefinite form (in the form of a verb name) and at least 3 tenses: present, future and preterite - the formation features of which are indicated above. Christopher Gwynn listed a number of surviving Gaulish verb forms in list form

Numerals

Numerals with graffiti La Grofesanc

1. cintus, cintuxos(Welsh cynt before, cyntaf"first", Breton kent"front", Old Irish ceta, Irish cead"first")
2. allos(W ail, Br email, OIR aile"other, second", Ir eile)
3. tritios(W trydydd, Br trade, OIR trade, Ir treats)
4. petuarios(W pedwerydd, Br pevare, OIR cetramad)
5. pinpetos(W pumed, Br pempet, OIR coiced)
6. suexos(maybe mistaken for suextos; W chweched, Br c'hwec'hved, OIR seissed)
7. sextametos(W Saithfed, Br seizhved, OIR sechtmad)
8. oxtumetos(W wythfed, Br eizhved, OIR ochtmad)
9. nametos(W nawfed, Br naved, OIR nomad)
10. decametos, decometos(W degfed, Br degvet, OIR dechmad, Celtiberian dekametam)

Syntax

Influence on French

The Gauls are traditionally considered the ancestors of the French and the Belgian Walloons (Belga), and before the advent of scientific comparative historical linguistics, it was sometimes even argued (“Port Royal Grammar”) that the French language is a descendant of Gaulish, and the similarity with Latin is explained by borrowings from it. However, the influence of the Gaulish language (in other words, the Celtic substratum) on French has not yet been proven to the same extent as the obvious clarity of the changes caused by a powerful layer of influences of the Germanic languages ​​at different levels, and it is Latin roots that predominate in the main root of French. There are about 180 words for Gallic elements ( including dialect), e.g., bec "beak", chêne "oak", vigesimal remainders, e.g. quatre-vingts "80" ("4 x 20"). Apparently, this is due to the fact that the extinction of Gaulish and the transition of the Gauls to popular Latin occurred very quickly and had already ended by the time the Old French language was formed. It should also be borne in mind that Latin and Gaulish - which is accepted by the entire scientific community - were quite close to each other like Italic and ancient Celtic languages, a number of words differed only in endings or grammatical form - all this also accelerated the transition to Latin and causes the ambiguity of the etymology of some modern French words, as they can be either Latin or Celtic. It is known, for example, that due to the understanding of the meaning of Latin words by the Gauls, Julius Caesar had to correspond in Greek, and not in Latin.

Surviving texts and glosses from ancient authors

Greek, Latin and early medieval authors have preserved a large number of glosses and even small fragments of phrases in Gaulish. Of particular note is Marcellus Empiricus of Bordeaux. He has 10 such texts in his book on medicines.

Magic formulas

Gallic magical formulas by Marcellus of Burdigala

1. excicum acrisos(for cleaning, washing eyes).
2. resonco hregan progresso(to remove mote from the eye).
3. in mon dercomarcos axatison(with swelling of the eyes).
4. rica rica soro(for barley).
5. κυρια κυρια κασσαρια σουρωρβι (for barley).
6. vigaria gasaria(for barley).
7. argidam margidam sturgidam(for toothache).
8. crisi crasi ca neras i(with sore tongue in throat).
9. heilen prosaggeri vome si polla nabuliet onodieni iden elilon(for blocked throat)
10. xi exucricone xu criglionalsus scrisu miovelor exugri conexu grilau(for congestion of the throat).

Other phrases

The Vita Sancti Symphoriani was created around the 5th century in this source, according to some scholars (see below), an entire sentence in Late Gaulish is preserved. Martyr Symphorianus de Augustoduno (165-180).

" hoc est memorare dei tui"

" " (Codex de Turin D. V. 3)

Ab anonymi auctore scripta, Vita Sancti Symphoriani: "uenerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et nota illum ouce Gallica monuit dicens: "nate, nate Synforiane, mentobeto to diuo""This transcription belongs to Rudolf Thurneysen. The text is damaged and, as can be seen above, differs in manuscripts and in this form is found in only two manuscripts from sets variants of The Martyrdom of St. Symphorian. This reconstruction belongs to the celtologist Thurneusen and is supported by M. Joseph Monard "

It is noteworthy that the part of the phrase - mentobeto to diuo probably reflects Vulgar Latin or its influence on Gaulish. That. mentobeto in Adams that this form was the imperative form of the compound verb mente habere. Where did the Old French come from: "mentevoir" and Prov. "mentaure".

vita sancti Symphoriani among those printed in the "édition des Acta sanctorum (Aug. IV, p. 497)" gives, however, a different text "of a more Latin form" - which is found already in the 16th century:

Venerabilis autem mater sua de muro nota illum voce commonuit dicens: " nate, nate Symphoriane, in mente habe Deum vivum. Resume constantiam, fili. Timere non possumus mortem, quae sine dubio perducit ad vitam"

glosses

In ancient Greek and especially in Latin. authors, as already mentioned, hundreds of Gallic and Galatian (much less) glosses have been preserved. From 5th century BC until the 6th century AD. From Plautus to Fortunatus lat. texts are full of Gaulish words. For example, the glosses of Hesychius, the materials of Hesychius of Alexandria, among other things, provide valuable information about the dialect of the Galatians in Asia Minor.

ἀβράνας· Κελτοὶ τοὺς κερκοπιθήκους abránas: among the Celts, long-tailed monkeys

αδες· πόδες. ἔνιοι δὲ ἀηδές ades : legs some, disagree (in form, considered Gaulish or Galatian)

Ἀδριανοί· Κελτοί, οἱ παρὰ τὴν Ἀδρίαν περίοικοι Adrianoí : Celtes qui habitent aux alentours de l'Adriatique

†βαρακάκαι · †ἅγιοι διαφέραι† , παρὰ Κελτοῖς brákkai: Celtic leather coats

βαρδοί· ἀοιδοὶ παρὰ Γαλάταις bardoí: singers among the Galatians

†ἔντριτον· τὸ διονίου ἔμβρωμα, ὃ Γαλάται ἔμβρεκτόν φασιν† éntriton: food ... which the Galatians call émbrekton

ἤλεκτρος· μέταλλον χρυσίζον. φασὶ δὲ αὐτὸ ἀπὸ τοῦ ἐν τῇ Κελτικῇ χώρᾳ Ἠριδανοῦ τοῦτο κομίζεσθαι τῶναἰαἰα. τὰ δάκρυα τῶν Ἡλιάδων ḗlektros ['amber'] : golden-colored metal; they say that in the country of the Celts near Eridanus, poplars are called that; Tears of Heliad (Iliad).

καίτρεαι· ὅπλα Ἰβηρικά· οἱ δὲ κυρτίας kaítreai: Iberian weapons; some kurtias

κάρνον · τὴν σάλπιγγα Γαλάται kárnon or kárnyx: trumpet among the Galatians

Κελτοί· ἔθνος ἕτερον Γαλατῶν Keltoí: a different tribe of Galatians

κυρτίας· Κελτοὶ τὰς ἀσπίδας kurtías: Celtic word, shields

λειούσματα ἢ λεγούσματα· εἶδος καταφράκτου. Γαλάται leioúsmata or legoúsmata: type of cataphract armor among the Galatians

λεύγη· μέτρον τι Γαλατικόν leúgē : Galatian unit of measure

μαδάρεις· τὰς πλατυτέρας λόγχας τῶν κεράτων. Κελτοί madáreis: spears (in shape) are flatter than horns (horn-tipped), among the Celts

Inscriptions in Gaulish

Until relatively recently, the largest Gallic monument was the calendar from Coligny. Since 1970, however, a number of well-preserved and relatively large texts have emerged, including a possible incantation on a lead plate from Larzac, which is the largest surviving Gaulish text. This lead plate was found in 1983 in L "Hospitalet-du-Larzac ( 43.966667 , 3.2 43°58′ N. sh. 3°12′ E d. /  43.966667° N sh. 3.2° in. d.(G)(O)) in Aveyron. The text is written in Latin cursive on both sides of two small sheets of lead. This text may be defixio- a tablet with a magical curse. . The text, according to some experts, is a magic spell in relation to a certain Severa Tertionicna and a group of women (perhaps rival sorceresses or druidesses), but the exact interpretation of the text, due to obvious gaps in our knowledge of Gaulish morphology and vocabulary, remains partially unclear.

Text examples

Gaulish text from Larzac

(After R. Marichal, modified by M. Lejeune, L. Fleuriot, and P.-Y. Lambert.)

Face 1a inside de bnanom brictoincors onda…[

]donicon[ / ]incarata

]a senit conectos[ / ]onda bocca nene.[

]rionti onda boca ne[ / .on barnaunom ponc nit-

issintor sies eianepian / digs ne lisantim ne licia-

tim ne rodatim biont- / utu semnanom sagitiont-

ias seuerim lissatim licia- / tim anandognam acolut[

utanit andognam[ / da bocca[ / diom…[ ne[

aia […] cicena[ / nitianncobueðliðat[

iasuolsonponne / antumnos nepon

nesliciata neosuode / neiauodercos nepon

su biiontutu semn- / anom adsaxs nadoc[

suet petidsiont sies / peti sagitiontias seu-

im tertio lissatim[ / ..]s anandogna […

…]ictontias.["

Translation: (Following the translation into French by P.-Y. Lambert.) Many words, however, are unreadable, because the translation is partial, which is facilitated by a limited understanding of Gaulish.

part 1a Send these women's charms against their names (which are) below, (there are) witch charms to charm witches. O Adsagsona, (name of the goddess) turn twice your attention to Severa Tertionicna their sorceress of letters and nauz (threads with magical knots), so that they will release him, along with a curse against their names, which makes the spell of the group below […]

part 1, b of these women named above, who charmed him in such a way that he became helpless […]

part 2a […] every person who holds the position of a judge, on whom they would cast a spell that cancels the spell cast on this person; so that this could not be there the witchcraft of the spell of the witch of letters, the witch of nauzes (knots on a string), the witch of givers, who is among these women who are looking for the North, in writing a witch, a witch of nauz, foreign[…]

part 2b is not an escape from evil spells […]

Notes

1. Gregory of Tours spoke about the Gaulish language in his writings, therefore, in the middle of the 6th century there was a certain number of speakers.
2. There is reason to believe that the final extinction of the Gaulish language took place around 600 AD. e. .
3. This may be debatable - as it may be an archaism or spelling device - there are discussions among Celtologists
4. Stifter, David. (Review of) Helmut Birkhan, Kelten. Celts. Bilder ihrer Culture. Images of their Culture, Wien 1999, in: Die Sprache, 43/2, 2002-2003, pp. 237-243
5. Tau Gaulish, as it is believed in peleography, comes from the Greek letter "phyta" or "theta"
6. as it is in ancient Greek itself. language
7. Lambert 2003 pp.51-67
8. mean Lit. Gaelic and Irish, since the Welsh cases are lost.
9. bn anom brictom
10. Recueil des inscriptions gauloises (XLVe supplement à "GALLIA"), ed. Paul Marie Duval et al. 4 vols. Paris: CNRS, 1985-2002. ISBN 2-271-05844-9
11. A. A. Korolev. Gaulish language. (Languages ​​of the world: Germanic languages. Celtic languages. - M., 2000. - S. 424-427)
12. English - Proto-Celtic
13. oldcelt2008_6_gaulishA.pdf David Stifter.
14. there is an opinion that mI here is a personal pronoun of the first number singular. numbers infected with a verb, e.g. in the shape of uediu-mi
15. Pierre-Yves Lambert La langue gauloise. - Paris: Editions Errance, 2003. - S. 162-174. - ISBN 2-87772-224-4
16. The Gaulish Verbal System © 2000 by Christopher Gwinn
17. list at encyclopedie.arbre-celtique.com/mots-francais-d-originine-gauloise
18. M. H. Offord, French words: past, present, and future, pp. 36-37
19. Xavier Delamarre, Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise, Une approche linguistique du vieux-celtique continental, Errance, Collection des Hespérides, 2003 (ISBN 2-87772-237-6) fr.
20. J. Degavre, Lexique gaulois (recueil de mots attestés, transmis ou restitués et de leurs interprétations. Mémoires de la Société belge d" études celtiques, n° 9), Brussel, 1998.
21. Marcellus Empiricus. De medicamentis liber. Lipsiae. Helmreich, Georg, 1849-1921
22. 1. Maicellus, De medicamentis liber, ed. G. Helmreich, Leipzig, 1889, VIII, 64, 170, 171, 190, 192, 193; XII, 24; XIV, 24; XV, 105, 106. See the edition given by Max Niedermann in Corpus medicorum latinorum, V, Leipzig, 1916.
23. Wilhelm Meyer in his fundamental work Fragmenta Burana. Berlin, Weidmann 1901
24. p. 24: „jeden- falls aus dieser Handschrift abgeschrieben, steht in der ^Münclmer Handschrift 22243 (XII) fol. \)h\ Venerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et notani illum uoce gallica inonuit dicens. Nate nate synforiane inemento b&oto diuo. hoc est memoi-are dei tui. Resunie constantiam timere deum non])ossunius.”
25. Rudolf Thurneysen, Zeitschrift fur Celtische Philologie, 4 (1923)
26. gegen die alte Handschrift in München 1441s (IX) liat nach Ikills Mitteilung fol. 45: Nate nii Synii) liorianae nieniorare doi tui. während die Handschrift der Laurenziana Aedil. KU (XI) (luich Pajnas Bericht) und die Münchner 2r)4() (XII) haben: Xate nate Symphoriane, nienicnto dei veri. Es stehen also nebeneinander die Varianten: in mente habe, niemento und meinorare. Seltsamer- weise enthält jede dieser o Lesarten eine Spur der ursi)rünglichen. In der Münchner Handschrift aus Penedictbeuern, no. 4r)Sö (IX. Jahrh. f.))I-X) steht das, was ich hier gebe, und dassell)e. jeden- falls aus dieser Handschrift abgeschrieben, steht in der ^Münclmer Handschrift 22243 (XII) fol. \)h\ Venerabilis mater sua de muro sedula et notani illum uoce gallica inonuit dicens. Nate nate synforiane inemento b&oto diuo. hoc est memoi-are dei tui. Resunie constantiam timere deum non ])ossunius.
27. Wilhelm Meyer in Fragmenta Burana. Berlin, Weidmann 1901: "Ce sont quelques paroles extraites du martyre de saint Symphorien d" Autun (env. 180 ap. JC), qui furent selon lui écrites au plus tard au Vème siècle. Quand le saint fut conduit au lieu de son jugement , sa mere le hela" voice gallica" en ces termes: " Nate nate Synforiane meniento b&oto diuo hoc est memorare dei tui" (Cod. monac. lat. 4585)" Nati nati Synforiani, mentem obeto dotiuo"(Codex de Turin D. V. 3) Aucun doute sur la celticité de ces paroles, mais elles sont peut-être un peu déformées dans les deux versions manuals, qui datent du IXème siècle. » Il y a là deux sources manuscrites. (Suivent les interprétations de ces paroles, étayées dans les deux cas par des comparaisons à l "irlandais ancien).
28. dans la revue "Message n° 54: MENTO BETO TO DEUO, "Pense constamment au divin". Cette formule gauloise citée est dans l "hagiograprie (en latin) de St Symphorien d" Autun (Vita Symphoriani Augustodunensis, 11ASS22) comme paroles de sa mère "Nate, nate, mênto beto do deuo" (Fils, fils, pense constamment au divin).
29. Adams J.-N. (2003, Bilingualism and the Latin Language)
30. Bréviaire de Vienne, de 1522: Venerabilis mater sua de muro sedula illum voce commonuit dicens: "nate, nate Symphoriane, in mente habe Deum tuum. Resume constantiam, fili"
31. "Συναγωγή Πασών Λέξεων κατά Στοιχείον". The glosses of Hesychius from his dictionary (both Greek and non-Greek) are posted online in the Greek version of Wikipedia, see
32. short note
33. Inscriptions and French translations on the lead tablets from Larzac
34. plomb du larzac
35. Lejeune, Michel; Fleuriot, L.; Lambert, P. Y. & Marichal, R. (1985), "Le plomb magique du Larzac et les sorcières gauloises", CNRS, ISBN 2-222-03667-4
36. data, according to: Delamarre, X. (2003). Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise(2nd ed.). Paris: Editions Errance. ISBN 2-87772-237-6 fr.
37. plat de lezoux
38. oldcelt2008_7_gaulishB.pdf David Stifter. p. 152
39. D.Stifter. p. 149.

Literature

• // Encyclopedic Dictionary of Brockhaus and Efron: In 86 volumes (82 volumes and 4 additional). - St. Petersburg. , 1890-1907.

Links

• L.A. Curchin, Gaulish language
• Gaulish language on TIED
• Coligny calendar (English)
• Languages ​​and writing of Roman Gaul (French)
• http://www.arbre-celtique.com (French)
• corpus of Gallic and Celtiberian inscriptions online (fr.)

Gaulish

belongs to the Celtic group of the Indo-European family of languages. By the 5th-6th centuries. in Gaul it was supplanted by Latin, in other parts of Europe it died out earlier.

Gaulish language

the language of the Celtic tribes, shortly BC. e. inhabiting the territory from the Iberian Peninsula to Asia Minor. It was a complex of different, but rather close tribal dialects. G. i. stands out in a special branch of the Celtic languages; more closely related to the British branch than to the Goidelic. Epigraphic monuments of G. I have come down to us. (4th century BC ≈ first centuries AD). Most of the short inscriptions contain only initiatory formulas. The most extensive is the calendar on a bronze plaque from Coligny. Many Gaulish words and proper names have been preserved in Latin inscriptions and in the works of ancient authors. Compared to the rest of the Celtic G. i. very archaic. The phonetic appearance of words has not undergone significant changes. Mutations of consonants, apparently, did not develop. As far as one can judge, the nominal declension was highly developed; the verb is much less known. Word order in a sentence is free. In the majority of areas of distribution of G. I. was superseded by Latin by the 5th-6th centuries. Many Gaulish words survive in modern French and northern Italian dialects.

Lit .: Lewis G., Pedersen H., A Brief Comparative Grammar of the Celtic Languages, trans. from English, M., 1954; Dottin G., La langue gauloise, P., 1920: Whatmough J, The dialects of ancient Gaul, ser. 1≈5, Ann Arbor, 1950≈51.

A. A. Korolev.

Wikipedia

Gaulish language

Gaulish language- a dead Celtic language, common in Gaul until the 6th century, when it was finally supplanted by popular Latin.

According to one of the two main classifications of the Celtic languages, Gaulish and a number of other dead languages ​​\u200b\u200b- Celtiberian and Lepontian - are combined into the so-called "Continental Celtic languages". Another classification, dividing the Celtic languages ​​into Q-Celtic and P-Celtic, places Gaulish in the second branch.

GALLIC LANGUAGE, the language of the Gauls. In reality, it existed as a group of dialects of Celtic tribes (see Celts), who inhabited the territory of Western and Central Europe from the 6th-5th centuries BC (excluding the Iberian Peninsula and part of Northern Italy), as well as the central regions of Asia Minor (Galatians). On the territory of Gaul itself, it disappeared by the end of the 5th century AD, giving way to the Latin language, in other parts of Europe - a little earlier; the Galatian language was supplanted by Greek by the 3rd-4th centuries.

Gaulish is one of the Celtic languages ​​(continental branch). He retained many archaic features that are not characteristic of the insular Celtic languages: there are no syncopation and apocope of vowels, transpositions, the old long and short are clearly contrasted; consonant mutations seem to have existed only as an emerging phonetic trend; judging by the reflexes in French and Italian place names, the stress was not fixed. In the nominal declension, the common Indo-European eight-case paradigm is revealed; specific innovations are noted in the verb; 3rd person singular preterite in -tu, -ru (plural -tus, -rus). Syntax is characterized by free word order in a sentence. Dialectical features can be seen in some reflections of the Indo-European *kw, *kw as qu and as p, in the accusative singular ending -m instead of -n.

In ancient sources, several thousand proper names and toponyms, as well as glosses and individual phrases in the Gaulish language, have been preserved. Some words have been deposited as substrates (see Substrate) in modern French and Italian literary languages ​​and dialects.

Monuments of the Gallic language (refer to the 4th century BC - the first centuries of our era) are fragmentary - they are represented by several dozen dedicatory inscriptions and epitaphs, graffiti and coin legends; this makes it almost impossible to establish specific dialectal differences. There are also several texts in the Gaulish language of a magical nature - records of conspiracies, curses on lead tablets from Larzac and Chamalier, an inscription on a tile from Chateaubleau (found in 1997), presumably interpreted as a love plot. The monuments were recorded using various writing systems: Etruscan (4th-1st century BC), Greek (3rd century BC - 1st century AD) and Latin (1st century BC - 4th century AD).

Lit.: Holder A. Altceltischer Sprachschatz. Lpz., 1891-1913. Bd 1-3; Evans D. E. Gaulish personal names. Oxf., 1967; idem. Continental Celtic // Indogermanisch und Keltisch. Wiesbaden, 1977; Whatmough J. The dialects of ancient Gaul. Camb. (Mass.), 1970; Lambert R. Y. La langue gauloise. 2 ed. R., 1995. Dictionaries: Delamarre H. Dictionnaire de la langue gauloise. 2 ed. R., 2003.

encyclopedic Dictionary

Gaulish Language

belongs to the Celtic group of the Indo-European family of languages. By the 5th-6th centuries. in Gaul it was supplanted by Latin, in other parts of Europe it died out earlier.

Encyclopedia of Brockhaus and Efron

Gaulish language

The language of the ancient Gauls who once inhabited northern Italy (Gallia Cisalpina of the Romans), most of modern France (Gallia Transalpina) and large parts of Spain and Portugal. It is very likely that this common name meant various Gaulish dialects, but there are no means of determining their mutual relations and differences from each other, for all that we know about the G. language consists in several hundred proper names quoted by Greek and Latin writers. or found in Greek (a few) and Latin inscriptions, as well as on coins and in a small number of inscriptions entirely in Gaulish. What is certain is that the G. language belongs to the family of Celtic languages ​​and probably constituted its third subdivision, different from the two that currently exist: British (Cymric or Welsh dialect, extinct Cornish or Cornish, and Breton or Aremorian) and Gaelic (Irian-Gaelic, that is, Gaelic in Ireland, Scottish-Gaelic, or Gaelic in the closest sense, and the Manx dialect, which still lives on the Isle of Man), although closer to the first. A complete collection of the remains of the ancient Gaulish language is not yet available. Proper names and individual Gaulish words found in Greek and Latin writers were already partly developed by Ze u ss "om in his Grammatica Celtica" (Berlin, 1871). Compare also the first part of "Celtica" Diefenbach "a (1839); his own, "Origines Europaeae" (1861), as well as a Gallic glossary in Roget de Belloguet, "Ethnogénie Gauloise" (1872). Of particular importance is the work Glück "a: "Die bei C. I. Caesar vorkommenden keltischen Namen" (1857); the book D "Arbois de Jubainville:" Les noms gaulois chez César et Hirtius "(1891) is devoted to the same issue. A small glossary from the 9th century. printed by the famous English Celtologist Stokes in "Beitr. zur Yergl. Sprachforsch", vol. VI. Most of the Greek inscriptions are written in the Latin alphabet, and only a few inscriptions from southern France are written in Greek. This confirms the testimony of Julius Caesar that the Druids used the Greek script. There are about 36 such inscriptions; a treatment of them was published by Stokes in Transactions of the Philol. Society (London 1885), and also in Bezzenberger's Beitr. z. Kunde der indogerm. Sprachen "(vol. XI). The number of Latin inscriptions with Gaulish names is extremely large; they are sorted out in a number of French scholarly publications: "Revue Epigraphique du Midi de la France", "Bulletin Epigraphique de la Gaule", "Dictionnaire d" archéologie celtique", and individual epigraphic works: Alph. Boissieu, E. Dejardins, Ch. Robert, R. Mowat, B. de Kersers, L. Revon, A. Allmer et A. de Terrebasse, E. Blanc, Fl. Valentin, J. Camille, R. Cagnat. The vase inscriptions were collected by Anatole de Barthélemy and G. de Mortillet. With the paucity of monuments of the Greek language, Gallic coins are an important tool for studying it. The oldest of them turn out to be imitations of the staters of Philip II of Macedon, so they belong to the 4th century BC. BC The largest collection (more than 7000, of which 950 gold and 324 silver) was compiled by de Saulcy, who rendered great services to G. numismatics. Also important are the works on the Gallic coins of A. de Bartélemy. Latin inscriptions with G. names outside of France are collected from Brambach in "Corpus Inscriptionum Rhenanarum" (Elberfeld, 1867) and from Mommsen in "Inscriptiones Galliae Cisalpinae Latinae" (Berlin, 1872 and 1877). The Rhenish monuments of the G. language (inscriptions and names) find a place for themselves in the "Jahrbücher des Vereins von Alterthumsfreunden im Rheinlande". The Celtic geographical names of the Rhineland provinces are considered Marjan "om -" Programmen der Realschule zu Aachen "(1880-81), the geographical names of the Celtorim era - A. Bacmeisteg" om ("Alemannische Wanderungen", Stuttgart, 1867). From non-French works. scholars is remarkable Williams, "Die französischen Ortsnamen keltischer Abkunft" (1891). There is also much material in the so-called "Dictionnaires Topographiques", published in the individual departments of France. Lists of G.'s proper names were compiled by General Creuly (in "Revue Celt.", Vol. III, where more than 1600 names are collected). Their complement and continuation is Liste des noms gaulois, H. Thédenat (in Revue Celt., vols. VIII and XII). Finally, mention should be made of the recently launched extensive edition of Holder "a," Altcelischer Sprachschatz ", which should cover all hitherto known lexical material of the G. of the language. There is still no complete grammatical processing of the G. of the language; a general outline of its phonetics and morphology is given by Windisch's article in "Grundriss der Romanischen Philologie", Gröber "a (Strasbourg, 1888). Some phonetic features of the G. language place it closer to the British branch of the Celtic family than to Gaelic. So, it has "labialization" (transition to labial sounds) of the second row of posterior linguals, like Cymric and Korean. In some G. dialects, perhaps, there was an older step, namely To with the following labial overtone, as evidenced by the well-known geographical name Sequana (Seine) transmitted by the Romans. Initial Indo-European R, apparently disappears in G. yaz., just as in a friend. Celtic dialects. In contrast to the ancient Cymrian, the G. language retains s between vowels. In the field of vocalism, one can note the transition of the Indo-European ei v è , although other diphthongs oi, ai , ou and ai preserved. The remnants of declension and conjugation are so few that they do not allow us to judge the morphological differences of the G. language from other Celtic ones.