Active or passive. Passive present participles: examples
Divided into two large categories: independent and service. Among the independent ones, participles are considered to be one of the most difficult to understand. The main difficulty for students is the division into passive and active participles. In fact, this task will be possible for anyone who knows the identifying features that all representatives of this part of speech possess. In order to distinguish between passive and active participles, you need to remember two simple formulas:
A) Active participle serves to designate a sign of an object that performs an action.
B) The passive, in turn, is necessary to designate the subject of the action, that is, the object to which this action is directed.
Sometimes the active participle is difficult to distinguish from the passive participle only by meaning. In this case, you need to pay attention to the grammatical and morphemic characteristics of the word. To form this part of speech, special identifier suffixes are used, by which we can confidently judge whether we see an active participle or a passive participle in front of us.
Active present participles
They take their basis from present tense verbs ( imperfect form) with the addition of the suffixes -ushch, -yushch (for the first conjugation) or -ashch, -yashch (for the second conjugation). For example, the participle “running” is formed from the verb I conjugation to run. Picture 1: A girl preparing soup (cooking is an active present participle).
Active past participle
It is formed from the base of the infinitive of verbs in the past tense (perfective form), with the addition of the suffixes -ш, -вш. For example, the participle "fallen asleep"formed from the verb “to fall asleep.” Verbs with a suffix - well, are somewhat out of this rule, since for active participles formed from these verbs, the corresponding suffix disappears. Example: get wet - wet.
Passive participles
They are formed according to the same rules, but differ from real ones in identifying morphemes. Thus, passive participles of the present tense, formed from the base of the infinitive of past tense verbs, are characterized by such suffixes as -nn, -enn, -yonn, -t. Examples: say - said (suffix -nn), heat - red-hot (suffix -yonn).
A participle is a special form of a verb with the following characteristics:
1. Indicates the attribute of an object by action and answers the questions: what is he doing, what did he do?, what did he do?.
2. Has morphological characteristics verb and adjective.
The features of a verb include
View (NE and NSV),
Transitivity (the sign is relevant for active participles),
Returnability,
Time (present and past).
Voice (active and passive).
In school grammar, voice is considered as a feature that is not characteristic of all verb forms, but only participles, while in scientific grammar the sign of voice is seen in a verb in any form (cf.: Workers are building a house - The house is being built by workers) - see reflexivity of the verb .
The characteristics of an adjective include
Case (for full participles),
Completeness/brevity (passive participles only).
3. Participles agree with nouns like adjectives and in a sentence they are the same members as adjectives, that is, a definition and nominal part compound nominal predicate (short participles - only part of the predicate).
Dependency of quantity participial forms on transitivity and aspect of the verb
A verb can have from one to four participial forms, depending on its transitivity and aspect.
Transitive verbs can have active and passive participle forms, intransitive verbs only have active participle forms.
SV verbs have only past participles (that is, SV verbs cannot have any present tense forms - neither in indicative mood, nor in participial forms), NSV verbs can have both present and past participles. Thus,
NSV transitive verbs have all 4 participles (reader, read, read, read),
intransitive verbs of the NSV have 2 participles - active present and past tense (sleeping, asleep),
Transitive verbs of the SV also have 2 participles - active and passive past tense (read, read).
intransitive verbs of the SV have only 1 participial form - the active past participle (overslept).
Active participles
Active participles denote the attribute of an object that itself produces an action: a boy reading a book.
Active present participles are formed from transitive and intransitive verbs NSV from the present tense using suffixes
Usch-(-yush-) for verbs of the first conjugation: running-ush-y, running-yush-y,
Ash-(-box-) for verbs of the second conjugation: lying-ash-y, hundred-box-y.
Active past participles are formed from transitive and intransitive verbs NSV and SV from the past tense stem using suffixes
Vsh- for verbs with a stem ending in a vowel: chita-vsh-iy,
Sh- for verbs with a consonant as a base: carried-sh-iy.
Verbs can form active past participles from another stem:
Some verbs in -sti (to lead, to gain) form the participles in question from the stem of the present/simple future tense (and not from the stem of the past tense): acquired (the basis of the future tense will gain-ut, the basis of the past - has found), led;
The verbs go and fade form these participles from a special base, not equal to any others: shed-sh-ii, fade-sh-ii.
Some verbs can form two participles from different stems: one from the past tense stem dried up and the other from the infinitive stem dried up, and the choice of suffix is carried out in accordance with the given rule.
Passive participles
Passive participles denote the attribute of the object to which the action is directed: a book being read by a boy.
Present passive participles are formed from transitive verbs NSV, from the present tense stem using a suffix
I eat- (sometimes -om) for verbs of the first conjugation: read-em-y, ved-om-y,
Im- for verbs of II conjugation: stored-im-y.
Passive participles can be formed from single intransitive verbs: guided and managed are formed from the intransitive verbs lead and manage (the meaning of the object with these verbs is expressed by a noun in the form not of V. p., but of T. p.: to lead, to manage a plant).
The verbs to beat, write, sew, revenge and others do not have passive present participles.
The present passive participle of the verb to give is formed from a special stem (davaj-em-y).
The verb move has two passive participles in the present tense: moved and moved.
Passive past participles are formed from the transitive verbs NSV and SV (participles from verbs NSV are few) from the past tense stem using suffixes
N(n) - from verbs ending in -at, -yat and -et: read-nn-y,
En(n) - from stems to consonant and -it: taken away, built,
T- from the bases on -nut, -ot, -eret and from monosyllabic verbs and derivatives from them: closed-t-y, kol-t-y, locked-t-y, bi-t-y, split-t- y.
Passive past participles are not formed for the verbs to love, seek, take.
For some verbs starting with -sti, -st, the passive past participles are formed from the base of the present/future tense: brought, acquired, spun, stolen.
Passive present and past participles can also be formed by adding the postfix -xia to the form active voice: well-selling (= selling) / selling books.
Passive participles have full and short forms: the letter I wrote - the letter was written by me. Short participles have the same grammatical properties as short adjectives, i.e., they do not change by case and appear in a sentence primarily as a function of the nominal part of the predicate.
Participles and verbal adjectives
Both participle forms and verbal adjectives can be formed from the same verb. If suffixes of different sound (letter) composition are used to form participles and adjectives, it is not difficult to distinguish them: from the verb burn with the suffix -yash- the participle burning is formed, and with the suffix -yuch- the adjective combustible is formed. If both participles and adjectives are formed using suffixes that have the same sound (letter) composition (for example, -enn- or -im-), it is more difficult to distinguish them.
However, there are differences between participles and adjectives in this case as well.
1. Participles denote a temporary attribute of an object associated with its participation (active or passive) in an action, and adjectives denote constant sign subject (for example, “arising as a result of an action”, “capable of participating in the action”), cf.:
She was brought up in strict rules (=She was brought up in strict rules) - participle;
She was well-mannered, educated (= She was well-mannered, educated).
2. The word in full form with the suffix -n-(-nn-), -en-(-enn)- is verbal adjective, if it is formed from the verb NSV and has no dependent words, and is a participle if it is formed from the verb SV and/or has dependent words, cf.:
unmown meadows (adjective),
meadows not mowed with a scythe (participle, because there is a dependent word),
mown meadows (participle, because SV).
3. Since only transitive verbs of the NSV can have passive participles of the present tense, words with the suffixes -im-, -em- are adjectives if they are formed from a verb SV or an intransitive verb:
waterproof boots (adjective, since the verb to get wet in the meaning of “let water through” is intransitive),
invincible army (adjective, because verb to defeat SV).
Verbs have a special participle form. For example: working, working (from the verb to work); builder, built (from the verb to build). A participle is a form of a verb that has the characteristics of both a verb and an adjective.
Like an adjective, a participle denotes a characteristic of an object. But unlike an adjective, a participle denotes such a feature of an object that indicates the action or state of the object; working man, i.e. the person who works; sleeping child, i.e. the child who is sleeping.
The participle has a number of characteristics of a verb: 1) the participle can be present and past tense: working- present tense, worked- past tense; 2) the participle can be perfect or imperfect: worked- imperfect appearance worked- perfect appearance; 3) the participle can be reflexive; washable; 4) the participle requires the same case as other verbal forms: reading (what?) a book; compare: reading a book, reading a book, reading a book (but reading a book).
On the other hand, the participle has a number of characteristics of an adjective: 1) the participle changes in gender and number, like an adjective: working, working, working, working (compare: mighty, mighty, mighty, mighty); 2) the participle is declined like an adjective: working, working, working etc.
In a sentence, the main role of a participle is the same as that of an adjective: it usually serves as a secondary member of the sentence (attribute).
Active and passive participles.
Active participles can be formed from both transitive and intransitive verbs. Passive participles are formed only from transitive ones.
A real participle is a participle that shows the attribute of an object that itself produces or has produced an action: a student who draws painted, (or painted) a picture.
A passive participle is a participle that shows the attribute of an object that is experiencing action from another person or object: a picture drawn (or painted) by a student.
Perfect and imperfect participles.
Active and passive participles retain the form of the verb from which they are formed: read-reader, read, readable(imperfect view); read - read, read(perfect view). At the same time, participles of both present and past tense are formed from imperfective verbs. And only past participles are formed from perfective verbs.
Formation of active participles of present and past tenses.
I. Active participles of the present tense are formed from the stem of the present tense using the suffixes -уш- (-уж-) for verbs of the 1st conjugation, -аш- (-яж-) for verbs of the 2nd conjugation.
1) Carrying - carrying 2) Holding-at-holding
Work-yut-working Vid-yat - seeing Bor-yut-sya - struggling Build-yat-sya - under construction
II. Active past participles are formed from the stem indeterminate form using the suffix -vsh- if the stem ends in a vowel, and the suffix -sh- if the stem ends in a consonant: read - read, see - seen, carry - carried.
The active present and past participles of reflexive verbs retain the particle -sya: struggling-struggling; fight - struggling.
The case and gender endings of participles are the same as those of adjectives.
Note. Participles on powerful (powerful, lying) penetrated into the literary language from the Old Church Slavonic language. IN Old Russian language these participles corresponded to participles in -chiy (mighty, recumbent), which later turned into ordinary adjectives, i.e. lost the meaning of the duration of action. Therefore, in Russian there are such pairs: standing - standing, flowing - flowing, pricking - prickly. The first word of each pair is of Old Church Slavonic origin, the second is of Russian origin.
Formation of passive participles of the present and past tenses.
Passive participles are formed from transitive verbs.
I. Present passive participles are formed from the present tense stem using the suffix -em- for many verbs of the 1st conjugation and the suffix -im- for verbs of the 2nd conjugation: kita-yut, read-e-th; they see, they see.
Note. From some verbs of the 1st conjugation, passive present participles are formed using the suffix -om: ved-ut, ved-om-y; attracted, attracted. These participles are bookish in nature.
II. Passive past participles are formed from the stem of the infinitive form of the verb:
a) using the suffix -nn-, if the base of the indefinite form of the verb ends in -а(-я), -е: read - read; sow - sown; seen-seen.
b) Using the suffix -enn-(-yonn-), if the stem of the indefinite form of the verb ends in a consonant or in (and the suffix -i- is omitted): carried away - carried away; baked - baked; paint - painted; illuminate - illuminated; convince - convinced; glorify-glorified.
At the same time, for verbs of the 2nd conjugation, alternations of sounds occur (s-sh, z-zh, t - h - shch, d-zh-zhd, v-vl, etc.).
c) From some verbs, passive past participles are formed using the suffix –t- we-th - washed; vi-th - twisted; mint - crumpled; touch - touched; grate- grated; lock - locked; mo-mo-t - ground; stabbed - stabbed.
Notes 1. Verbs of group c) include verbs of the 1st conjugation if the stem of the indefinite form ends in and, y, y, oh, and also I (a), alternating with n or m: vi-t - twisted, we-t - washed, touch-touched, prick - pricked, min-t (mn-u) - crumpled, squeeze (squeeze-y, squeeze-y ) - compressed.
2. For verbs whose indefinite stem ends in -er-, the final e of the stem is omitted: grate - grated.
Short form of passive participles.
Passive participles have two forms - full and short: read - read; open - open.
The full form of participles in a sentence is usually a modifier. The short form of passive participles is not inflected and serves as a predicate in the sentence.
Compare: 1. The fog-shrouded forest is noisy. -The forest is shrouded in fog. (The word shrouded is a definition, and the word shrouded is a predicate.) 2. The children approached open door. -The door is open. (The word open is the definition, and the word open is the predicate.)
Passive participles of the short form are formed using the suffix -я- or less commonly -t-.
Unlike the full form participles in short participles one n: read book - book read, painted floors - floors painted.
Declension of participles.
Full form participles have the same case endings, like "adjectives.
The past participles are also declined: fought, fought, fought etc.
Transition of participles into nouns and adjectives.
A participle can be used in the meaning of an ordinary noun or adjective. For example, in sentences: 1. The workers of the USSR joyfully greet the May Day holiday, 2. Students are preparing for spring tests - words from students and workers have the meaning of nouns.
A participle that turns into an adjective loses the meaning of time and denotes a permanent property of an object. Passive past participles especially often turn into adjectives. For example: baked bread, loaded barge. Such participles do not have explanatory words. Passive participles without prefixes, which have turned into adjectives, are written with one n. For example, wounded animal (compare: animal wounded by a bullet); baked bread (compare; well-baked bread).
Passive participles with prefixes are always written after two n (-NN-): frozen, strengthened, red-hot, chosen, educated. Participles with the suffix -ovanny-y, even if they have turned into adjectives, are also written with two organized team, qualified worker.
Spelling particles Not with participles.
Particle Not with participles in full form is written separately if the participle has an explanatory word with it.
Particle Not with participles it is written together if the participle does not have explanatory words with it.
There was a winding road leading to the garden. uncleared track.
On unmown the meadow was full of flowers..
Unfinished a glass of milk stood on the table. There was a winding road leading to the garden, cleared by no one track.
In the meadow, still not mowed down by collective farmers, the flowers were colorful.
Not finished drinking as a child a glass of milk stood on the table.
With communion in short form negation Not written separately: Job Not finished. Materials needed more Not collected.
Notes 1. With explanatory words denoting the degree (extremely, completely, completely, very, very, extremely etc.), not written together with the participle, for example: a completely unresolved issue, an extremely rash act.
2. If it is not part of intensifying negations - far from, not at all, not at all and others standing before the participle, then the negation is not written separately, for example: It’s far from a thoughtful decision, it’s not a resolved issue at all.
S. S. Sai, 2014
Active present participles called participles formed with the help of suffixes - asch (-box) / -ushch (-yushch): Wed. screaming, walking, cutting, dancing.
1. Formation of active present participles
1.1. Basis of present active participles
The stem of active present participles is formed by adding suffixes to the stem of present tense verbs - ushch(spelling also - yushch) for verbs of the first conjugation and - asch(spelling also - box) for verbs of the second conjugation. Verbs that have variant stems of the present tense (see Variation in verb formation) usually, to one degree or another, allow the formation of variant participles of the present tense (cf. swaying And swaying).
You may notice that the vowel before sch in the suffix of the active participles of the present tense coincides with the one included in the ending of the personal form of the third person present tense plural(see Conjugation). This rule also applies to various complex cases. For example, verb honor, having variant forms of the third person plural ( honor And honor), allows the formation of participles honorable And honorable; mixed verb want forms a participle willing(cf. want), verb There is forms a participle eating. Finally, from an irregular verb be archaic participle is formed marginally real(cf. form 3 l. plural. essence, also archaic; about communion real see also), which to some extent corresponds to the general pattern:
(2) ...he... lay down, began to smoke and think about another reality, existence in the sublunary world in unity with this reality, where the Wise Man is. [Yu. Davydov. Blue Tulips (1988-1989)]
1.2. Stress in forms of active present participles
In participles of verbs that have fixed stress in the present finite forms, the stress is always on the same syllable as in these finite forms, cf. sizh u ,sitting And sitting; I see,they see And seer.
For most verbs that have movable stress in the personal forms of the present tense, the place of stress in the participle coincides with the place of stress in the third person plural form: I'm writing,write,writer; I love,love,loving. This pattern is consistent with the rule formulated above (see) about the coincidence of the vowel in the participle suffix and in the ending of the third person plural form.
However, there are also verbs with movable stress, in which the stress in the participle falls on the participle suffix, which corresponds to the position of the stress in their first person form singular, but does not correspond to the stress position in the third person plural form: I'm walking,are walking,walking;I'm catching,catch,catching;I smoke,smoke,smoking. See more about this in [Isachenko 1965/2003: 544–545].
When adding various inflections of the adjectival type within the paradigm of real participles, the stress remains fixed ( sitting,sitting,sitting,sitting etc.).
1.3. Restrictions on the formation of active present participles and “actual future participles”
The main limitation on the formation of active participle forms is that such participles cannot be formed from perfective verbs.
Here, however, it is necessary to make one reservation. In fact, as has been repeatedly noted in the specialized literature [Grammatika 1980(1): 667], [Kalakutskaya 1971: 24–25], suffixes of present participles are quite often attached to perfective verbs. As a result, not entirely normative forms are formed, which are logically considered future participles, Wed the following examples taken from [Krapivina 2009], where the “actual participles of the future tense” of SV verbs are analyzed in detail:
(3) I remember at the time when I wrote this, I considered myself a Great Writer, sooner or later who will write a brilliant work... (blog http://mirotvoriec.livejournal.com)
(4) Thus was born a form with its inherent individuality and originality, a happy combination of functionality and aesthetics, not losing its attractiveness for many years. (Auto Market website http://www.enet.ru/win/digitalKenig/news/auto)
After analyzing a selection of examples with future participles, K. A. Krapivina comes, among other things, to the following conclusions.
1. Participles of the future tense are much more often used than other active participles, not alone, but as part of a phrase (about 95% of cases).
2. Participles of the future tense are much more likely than other active participles to occupy a non-initial position in the composition participial phrase, which is generally atypical for participles (see example (3) above).
3. Future participles are much more likely than other active participles to be used in the context of negation (see example (4) above).
It seems that the observations made fit into the general assumption that the participles of the future tense retain more signs of “verbality”, that is, they are less nominalized than the normative participles of the past and present tense (see Real participles of the present tense / paragraph 4. Real participles in a number of means of relativizing the subject).
Despite all of the above, future participles are still on the periphery grammatical system– both in frequency and in the degree of grammatical acceptability (which was, in particular, shown in a special experiment described in [Krapivina 2009]). That is why many authors, noting their occurrence in texts, still propose to consider them to be outside the boundaries of the Russian literary language. A detailed analysis of existing views on the problem of the status of these entities, both from the point of view language norm, and from the point of view of the grammatical system itself, see [Vlahov 2010: 17–20].
As for the restrictions on the formation of actually active present participles from NSV verbs, it can be noted that there are very few such restrictions in the Russian language.
Present participles, which is natural, are not formed from those few NSV verbs that do not have personal forms of the present tense (cf. * hearing And * I hear).
Further, in modern Russian the word is practically not used as a participle. real, that is, the active present participle of the verb be. Archaic is the use of the word real precisely as a participle of a verb be, as in example (2); adjective derived from it real‘true, very similar’ (cf. absolute bastard,a real child,mere pennies) continues to be used quite regularly in modern texts.
Also, as shown, in particular, in [Kholodilova 2009: 29], [Kholodilova, in press], in the Russian language there is a tendency to avoid active present participles from verbs be able(powerful) And want(willing) . While not grammatically impossible, the corresponding participles nevertheless constitute a fundamentally smaller proportion of the uses of these verbs than the actual present participles of other verbs.
2. Semantics of active present participles
In many cases the traditional designation is "real participles" present time" - fully corresponds to the semantics of these forms, i.e. these participles denote actions synchronous with the moment of generation of the text, see (1) above. However, in a number of cases, real present participles denote situations that are not synchronous with the moment of speech generation:
(5) Tanya... saw a chain of geologists, walking along the wooden walkway to a large green van. [IN. Aksenov. It's time, my friend, it's time (1963)]
In general, in aspectual-temporal terms, the range of interpretation of these participles is very wide; they can be used to designate a wide variety of situations - actual-long-term, multiple (6), prospective (7), etc. (see about this, for example, [Knyazev 2007: 478–481]).
(6) I was not the only one who noticed my failure. Not even Leva Markin missing out chance to praise me, this time he was silent (I. Grekova. Department), cited in [Knyazev 2007: 478]
(7) It was completely blue in the windows. And in the blue there were two left on the platform, leaving the last ones are Myshlaevsky and Karas (M. Bulgakov. The White Guard), cited in [Knyazev 2007: 479]
Largely because of this mobility of aspectual-temporal interpretation within the framework of the system of real participles, present participles formed from NSV verbs are often described as a kind of “unmarked member” [Isachenko 1965/2003: 542]. Indeed, in order to understand exactly what meaning is expressed these forms, it is necessary to consider them not in isolation, but within the framework of the paradigm in which they belong, comparing them with other forms that the speaker can use in speech. That's why detailed description aspectual, temporal and taxis potential of these forms is given in the general section Active participle / clause 3. Contrasting the active participles of the present and past tenses.
In addition, it should be noted that in most cases, real participles of the present tense, like other real participles, serve to relativize the subject and in this sense, their semantics can be meaningfully considered among other constructions that can perform this function (see Real participle / paragraph 4 . Active participles among the means of relativizing the subject). In this sense, real participles of the present tense with a postfix stand apart - Xia expressing passive meaning (see Voice). It makes sense to compare them with the passive participles of the present tense (see Passive participle / paragraph 1.6. Competition between the passive participles of the present tense and the active participles of the present tense of reflexive verbs with a passive meaning).
3. Transition of active present participles to other parts of speech
3.1. Adjectivation of active present participles
Adjectivation, that is, the loss of a participle from the verbal paradigm and its transformation into a separate adjective lexeme, does not affect the entire class of participles equally, but individual participle formations (see Participle / clause 5.2. Adjectivation of participles). Nevertheless, there are general semantic trends that are characteristic of large groups of adjectival participles. For active present participles, this tendency mainly comes down to the loss of components of meaning associated with a specific localization in time, and the development of usual, potential or “timeless” semantics (i.e., “generic meaning”); in other words, adjectival active present participles usually develop the ability to denote stable features of objects. This development path is discussed in. A special case of the same trend can be considered the development of metonymic uses of adjectival participles, discussed in. Several more cases of the development of adjectives that superficially resemble participles are discussed in.
3.1.1. Adjectives meaning ability or function
The general tendency towards the development of adjectival participial forms of timeless semantics (see) is manifested, in particular, in the formation of adjectives with the meaning “capable of performing an action,” denoted by a producing verb (8) [Lopatin 1966: 41], and “an employee intended to perform actions" [ibid.] (9), see also [Grammar 1980(1): 666].
(8) Wrote amazing dissertation on Chekhov. And so she was recommended to take up my writings. [WITH. Dovlatov. Decals (1990)]
(9) Radiation from computers, a suspension of harmful coloring powder from office equipment, tobacco smoke + smog - ALL THIS is the cause of your headaches at the end of the working day. [The Gift (2005)]
The adjective meanings of these types are especially characteristic of the participles of intransitive verbs ( flying saucer, player coach, crisp); they, however, are also possible for transitive verbs, but in this case such participles are in most cases used without direct object, as in example (9), see discussion in [Lopatin 1966: 41]. Combinations of active present participles in adjective meanings and names modified by them demonstrate high productivity, in particular in the field of technical terminology: cutting tool ,coloring matter[Lopatin 1966: 41–42].
The problem that arises when analyzing such usages is that in many cases the personal forms of the present tense of the corresponding verbs can also, in principle, be used in the sense of a timeless attribute, property or ability, cf. (9) and (10):
(10) There is such a pencil, it paints with eyeliner effect. [Beauty, health, relaxation: Beauty (forum) (2005)]
Thus, the difference in such cases turns out to be primarily quantitative: finite forms of the verb color are much more often used to denote a situation localized in time, although they can also denote a timeless ability, and the forms of the adjectival participle coloring- vice versa. In a number of works in which adjectivation is understood as a gradual process, participial formations that demonstrate, among the semantic signs of adjectivation, only the loss of connection to a specific point in time, are interpreted as “participles in the meaning of adjectives.” Thus, such formations are still considered as participles, that is, units that have not lost connection with the verbal paradigm and have not transferred to the class of adjectives [Lopatin 1966: 41–43], [Grammatika 1980(1): 666]. Sometimes in the literature a three- or even four-level classification is used: for example, in [Sazonova 1989] simple participles, “stative” lexical meanings participle forms”, participles in the adjective meaning and adjectives homonymous to participles [Sazonova 1989].
NOTE. V.V. Lopatin, among other things, discusses real present participles from denominational verbs in - work: fascist,hooligan,aesthetic etc. Despite the recognition that such formations often arise occasionally, without fixing the corresponding verbs in finite forms in the language, V.V. Lopatin comes to the conclusion that such formations should still be interpreted precisely as participles, albeit realizing only “ adjective meanings" [Lopatin 1966: 43]. END NOTES
The development of a timeless reading is very characteristic of real present participles and, to some extent, can be recognized as their inherent property.
NOTE. However, such a scenario of semantic development is still not completely unlimited and is largely predetermined by the semantic properties of the verb. This problem is discussed in detail in [Bogdanov 2011: 121–126], where the difficulty of a timeless (“generic” in the author’s terminology) reading for active present participles for two groups of verbs is noted.
1. For some non-agentive(“non-accusative” in the author’s terminology) intransitive verbs. Thus, it is argued that with the help of a noun phrase current substance can only mean a substance that is flowing at some relevant moment in time, and not simply having the ability to flow. The combination, for example, talking monster, including the participle of an agentive verb speak, can refer to a monster that is capable of speech, but does not necessarily speak at a particular point in time. For many non-agentive verbs there are pseudoparticiples ending in - whose, which always have a generic reading (cf. fluid).
2. For transitive verbs related to the class "result verbs", opposed to the class of transitional "way verbs". Thus, it is argued that the noun phrase reading person(read - verb of manner, it describes a certain type of action by the Agent, but does not denote any change in the state of the second participant - the Patient or, in other terminology, the Subject) can refer to a person who has the ability or inclination to read, but is not reading at any point in the observation , while the noun phrase cooking man(cook– a verb of result, it presupposes a change in the state of the Patient, but does not specify the nature of the Agent’s action) can only have an episodic interpretation, that is, it necessarily refers to a person who is cooking something at some relevant moment of observation. The main difficulty with empirical testing of this hypothesis lies in the non-obviousness of the very opposition between the verbs of method and result. For example, it is not clear whether verbs can be counted drink or feed verbs of manner (participles feeding And drinker, undoubtedly, can develop generic meanings according to the described model, cf. nursing mother,drinking husband).
Limitations on the possibility of a generic, timeless interpretation of active present participles require further study. END NOTES
3.1.2. Adjectives with metonymic shift
Adjectivation of active present participles can also be accompanied by metonymic transfer. We are talking about a situation when, with the help of an adjectival participle, a sign or property is attributed not to that participant in the situation who could actually be in the subject position with the finite form of the corresponding verb, but to some adjacent participant, often one or another attribute of the animate participant:
(11) - Through, it will heal, - said the pilot understanding tone, lifting up Sintsov’s tunic and tying scraps of his shirt around him. [TO. Simonov. Living and Dead (1955-1959)]
(12) It was difficult to imagine that these animals had legs and not wings, they were so airy sliding, sneaking gait. [R. Shtilmark. Heir from Calcutta (1950-1951)]
It is clear that a person, an animate being, for example, a pilot, can have the ability to understand, and the tone of voice in in this case characterized as one that belongs to a person who has such ability (cf. the pilot understands – *understands the tone, animals sneak – *the step is stealthy).
3.1.3. Adjectives starting with - ushch / -asch, incompatible with the verb
Adjectivation is even more noticeable in cases where the unit, which has the form of a participle, does not at all correlate in meaning directly with the verb from which it could be derived, cf. comprehensive explanation,eminent scientist(cf. * the explanation is exhaustive, *scientist issued).
Finally, it can be noted that in the Russian language there are also such undoubted adjectives that contain suffixes typical of real participles of the present tense, despite the fact that there are no corresponding verbs in the language system, cf. previous,real.
NOTE. Wed. also adjectives long unsold, lost, outwardly reminiscent of participles, but in reality they are not and, apparently, never were. It is also worth mentioning the existence of a small number of adjectives that contain suffixes that coincide with the suffixes of real present participles, but are formed from other adjectives and express the meaning of the intensity of the attribute: enormous,long,smart,cunning. Separate interesting group form colloquial adjectives like important, growing stronger, first-breathing, which probably arose as a result of contamination of the participial suffix and superlative forms (cf. the most important, strongest, first). END NOTES
3.1.4. Adjectives with formal differences from corresponding participles
Some of the adjectives that resemble participles are characterized by the deletion of /j/ and contraction of vowels compared to the expected regular participle: walking,knowledgeable, and also possibly industrious. knowledgeable– entrenched in Russian literary language adjective meaning ‘having knowledge in a certain area, competent’. Moreover, according to regular rules, from an outdated but sometimes used verb inquire‘to have knowledge, to understand’ must be formed as a participle knowledgeable(cf. know). Such formation is occasionally found in the texts of the Corpus until the middle of the 20th century, mainly also in the adjectivized meaning of ‘competent’:
(13) The first volume, along with the positive assessment of its most knowledgeable“Saltykovologists” (of which there are very few), met, of course, an unfavorable attitude from newspaper critics (of which there are a lot). [R. V. Ivanov-Razumnik. Prisons and exiles (1934-1944)]
“Contracted” forms sometimes characterize colloquial or colloquial variants of words related in origin to participles, cf. next(instead of literary next). The active present participle of a verb formed according to the rules walk– walking(cf. walking), and vernacular (or imitating vernacular) walking used as an adjective meaning 'dissolute, idle'.
3.1.5. Adjective composites with participial component
Adjectival formations associated with participles also include composites (formations obtained by compounding), in which the first element corresponds to some dependent element of the original verb, and the second is precisely the form of the active present participle: expensive,perishable etc. (see discussion in [Bogdanov 2011: 165–201]). A special subclass of such formations consists of words in which the first component corresponds to a name that could be used in the direct object position with the corresponding transitive verb: metal-cutting(cf. cuts metal),woodworking(cf. processes wood). As V.V. Lopatin notes, such composites are common in the field of technical terminology; their formation compensates for the discussed inability of adjectival active participles of transitive verbs to be combined with direct objects [Lopatin 1966: 42].
3.2. Substantivalization of active present participles
That's why irregular verb it is clear that the present participle is formed from the same stem as the personal plural forms. The same, apparently, could be said about another similar verb with an unstable base in the present paradigm - give. This verb refers to perfect view and, accordingly, does not have a normative active present participle (see). However, occasionally it forms a non-normative participle with the meaning of the future tense giver(about 20 uses on Google). Thus, in this case, native speakers of the Russian language choose the variant of the stem that is characteristic of plural forms (cf. will give, But dud-ut).
The possibility of forming future participles is associated with a number of factors; more precisely, the formation of these forms, and in general peripheral, can be additionally limited for verbs of certain inflectional classes, for verbs of certain modes of action, etc. Similar factors are studied in detail in [Vlakhov 2010: 26–40].
Interestingly, in the verb paradigm be once included a unique participle of the future tense, namely the actual future; however, in modern Russian the word future also used exclusively as an adjective.
This fact fits into the typological tendency to reduce non-finite forms in modal verbs(see about this side of grammaticalization, for example,).
L.P. Kalakutskaya notes that real participles of the present tense relatively rarely denote such actions that coincide in duration with the action designated supporting form, and much more often they refer to situations whose duration wider action expressed by the supporting form: Levin found his wife sad and bored(L.N. Tolstoy. Anna Karenina) [Kalakutskaya 1971: 61–62]. This situation, according to L.P. Kalakutskaya, creates the preconditions for the development of the meanings of a timeless feature and, thus, adjectivation.
For some of these formations it is difficult to establish exactly how their first part relates to the structure of the dependent verb that provides the basis for the second part, cf. fundamental,electromotive, living-growing, mining, life-affirming.