Punctuation norm. The meaning of punctuation in Russian
Signs... but not signs
The hyphen, which, by analogy with the dash, many take for a punctuation mark, is not one. Together with the accent mark, it refers to non-literal spelling characters. And the frequently encountered ampersand (&), although similar to a punctuation mark, is in fact a ligature of the Latin conjunction et.The controversial point is the gap. Due to its task of separating words, it can be classified as punctuation marks, but can emptiness be called a sign? Except technically.
Sources:
- Russian punctuation
- Basics of Russian punctuation
Today it is difficult to imagine that books were once printed without punctuation marks. They have become so familiar that they are simply not noticed. But punctuation marks live their own lives, have interesting story appearance. A person seeking to master competent written speech must use punctuation marks correctly.
History of the origin of quotation marks
The word quotation marks in the meaning of a note sign is found in the 16th century, but in the meaning of a punctuation mark it was used only from the end of the 18th century. It is assumed that the initiator of introducing quotation marks in written speech- N.M. Karamzin. The origin of this word is not clear. In Russian dialects, kavysh means “duckling”, kavka means “”. Thus, it is assumed that the quotation marks are “traces of duck or frog legs”, “squiggle”, “”.
Types of quotation marks
There are several types of quotation marks. There are two types of quotation marks used in Russian:
- French “Christmas trees”;
- German „“.
are used as regular quotation marks, and paws are used as “quotations “within” quotation marks.”
Rules for using quotation marks in text
Marking direct speech and quotations with quotation marks
The speech of another person, i.e. direct speech included in the text is formatted in two ways:
- if direct speech is written in a line, then it is enclosed in quotation marks: “It’s a pity that I didn’t know you before,” he said;
- if direct speech begins with a paragraph, then a dash is placed in front of it (then quotation marks are not placed): Senya and Pavel went out onto the balcony.
- This is what I came for: Has Gleb arrived from a business trip?
- I’ve arrived.
Direct speech is not highlighted in quotation marks unless it is indicated to whom it belongs: It is not for nothing that they say: as you sow, so does.
Quotes are enclosed in quotation marks in the same way as direct speech: “Life is an unpredictable thing,” said A.P. Chekhov.
Putting quotation marks around words that are unusually used in speech
Quotes are used to highlight words that are unfamiliar to the author’s vocabulary, words that belong to a narrow circle of friends: I poked with a stick, the track “gave a blast.”
The names of metro stations in texts are enclosed in quotation marks (but not in maps!).
Titles literary works, documents, works of art, magazines and newspapers, etc. put in quotation marks: “Queen of Spades.”
The names of orders, awards, medals that are syntactically incompatible with the generic name are enclosed in quotation marks: Order “Mother - Heroine” (but: Order of the Patriotic War).
Names of varieties of flowers, vegetables, etc. highlighted in quotation marks: “black prince.”
Trade names household appliances, food products, wines are enclosed in quotation marks: “Biryusa” refrigerator.
Quotation marks emphasize the ironic. If the word "smart" is in quotation marks, it means a stupid person.
The placement of appropriate punctuation marks in sentences plays an important role. Writer K.G. Paustovsky compared them to musical notes that “prevent the text from falling apart.” Now it is even difficult for us to imagine that for a long time the usual small symbols were not used when printing books.
Instructions
Punctuation marks appeared in Europe with the spread of printing. The sign system was not invented by Europeans, but was borrowed from the ancient Greeks in the 15th century. Before their appearance, texts were difficult to read: there were no spaces between words or the recording was undivided segments. In our country, the rules for placing punctuation marks began to operate only in the 18th century, representing a branch of the science of language called “punctuation.” The founder of this innovation was M.V. Lomonosov.
The dot is considered the most ancient sign, the ancestor of punctuation (the names of some others are associated precisely with it). Found in ancient Russian monuments, the dot had a different use from today. It could once have been placed without observing a certain order and not at the bottom, as now, but in the middle of the line.
The comma is a very common punctuation mark. The name can be found already in the 15th century. According to V.I. Dahl, the lexical is related to the verbs “wrist”, “stammer”, which should now be understood in the meaning of “stop” or “delay”.
Most other punctuation marks appeared throughout the 16th–18th centuries. Parentheses and colons began to be used in the 16th century, as evidenced by written monuments. 17-18 centuries – the time when Russian Dolomonosov grammarians mention the exclamation mark. At the end of sentences with pronounced strong feelings They began to draw a vertical straight line above the point. M.V. Lomonosov defined the exclamation mark. In printed books of the 16th century. you can meet question mark, but only two centuries later it began to be used to express a question. The semicolon was first used as an intermediate sign between the colon and comma, and also replaced the question mark.
Much later came the ellipses and dashes. The historian and writer N. Karamzin made them popular and consolidated their use in writing. In Grammar A.H. Vostokov (1831) there is an ellipsis, but it was found in written sources earlier.
The word “quotation marks” was in use already in the 16th century, but it meant a musical note (hook) sign. According to assumptions, it was Karamzin who suggested introducing quotation marks into written speech. The naming “quotes” can be compared with the word “paws”.
There are ten punctuation marks in modern Russian. Most of their names are of original Russian origin, from French the word "dash" is borrowed. The old names are interesting. A “containing” sign was a parenthesis (it contained some information inside). The speech was interrupted by a “silence” - a dash, a semicolon was called a “half dot”. Since the exclamation mark was originally necessary to express surprise, it was called “amazing.”
The red line serves as a punctuation mark in its own way and has an interesting history. Not very long ago, text was typed without indentation. Having typed the text in full, icons were added using paint of a different color to indicate the structural parts. Free space was specially left for such signs. Forgetting to put them on one day empty space, came to the conclusion that indented text is read very well. This is how paragraphs and a red line appeared.
Video on the topic
Please note
The study of the rules for setting punctuation marks was started by the outstanding scientist M.V. Lomonosov. Adopted in the mid-twentieth century, the “Rules of Spelling and Punctuation” are the basis of modern literate writing.
Sources:
- From the history of Russian punctuation. The role of punctuation marks.
Competent writing of sentences is one of the signs of education and culture, so every person should strive to best mastery Russian speech. Isolating the conjunction “how” is a problem for many, and therefore studying a number of rules will help you learn the correct placement of punctuation marks.
Instructions
All introductory words and the designs stand out on both sides. This also applies to phrases, part of which is “as”: “as a rule”, “as a consequence”. For example: “He was late, as always”; “The woman, as if on purpose, forgot hers at home.” Before “how” also, if it separates two parts of a complex sentence: “Mom will never know how her son skipped school”; “The hunter stood for a long time and watched as the elk walked away unharmed.”
Comparative turnover is a circumstance from both sides: “The dove walked in circles for a long time and looked after the turtledove, like a real gentleman”; “She jumped high like a mountain doe and literally flew over the bar.” This construction begins with a sign and ends with it even when the main sentence comes after it: “A falcon swooped down from above, like an inexorable natural element.”
The phrase with “how” can also act as a circumstance of the manner of action, and in this case it is not used: “The horse flew like an arrow and at the finish line overtook the favorite by half a head.” Despite the difficulty of distinguishing between these two categories, the circumstance of the manner of action can be recognized if you mentally replace the word form from “how” with a similar one: “The horse flew like an arrow and at the finish line overtook the favorite by half a head.” “Like an arrow” is an integral part of the predicate and when parsing a sentence together with a double line.
Phraseologisms have turned into indivisible phrases and become one part of speech, so they are not separated by a comma: “The children are growing by leaps and bounds,” “He drank the linden infusion, and his cold went away.” In addition to them, complex predicates have become inseparable, which can include not only circumstances of the manner of action, but also comparisons: “She came like
Punctuation is a branch of the science of language that studies the norms of use of punctuation marks. Punctuation marks gradually developed in the history of the Russian language and acquired modern look only by the nineteenth century. Ancient writings also used punctuation marks, but they were very different from modern ones. For example, a period was used in the middle of a line. The period corresponded to the modern comma. The quarter dot, or “imaginary cross,” corresponded to the dot. Moreover, in ancient times texts were written together, letter by letter. Since the 15th century, it has been increasingly observed separate writing, a punctuation mark appears that we also use, but for us it is an “empty space,” that is, a space. Ancient scribes characterized it as follows: “Ice is moving apart, or parting, or breaking through. And it is placed in the Divine Scriptures in the lines between the words (words), the hollow space is moved apart, so that the words do not become intertwined.” The punctuation also included a sign of transference, or end-transfer; according to Meletiy Smotritsky - “unit”, which goes “from line to line”, not dividing, but connecting the word. In Church Slavonic, punctuation marks are very similar to modern ones. Only the question mark differs from modern punctuation marks. In Church Slavonic graphics it is a punctuational Greekism.
In modern linguistics, punctuation is a science, a linguistic discipline about punctuation marks, their composition, meanings and rules for their use. Punctuation is also understood as a set of punctuation marks. Term punctuation from Latin word"punctum", which means "point". Punctuation, therefore, literally means “the science of dots.” The word punctuation as part of the term punctuation marks is of original Russian origin. Outside of this term, it means “obstacle.” Comma and punctuation are words of the same root. The main and most significant difference between punctuation marks and other writing signs is functional: punctuation marks do not indicate speech sounds and are not part of “written” words. In relation to words, writing signs are generally divided into three main groups: 1) intra-word - letters 2) “word” signs - numbers 3) inter-word - these are precisely punctuation marks.
How many punctuation marks are there in Russian? The ten punctuation marks are as follows: periods, commas, colons, ellipses, semicolons, ellipses, dashes, question marks, exclamation marks, parentheses, and quotation marks. The following signs are added to them: a single bracket: for example: 1)... 2)... or a)... b)... etc.) ; a footnote sign, usually in the form of an asterisk (*) (this sign is also called an asterix, from the Greek Aster - “star”). Following the paragraph, other signs of text division are sometimes included in punctuation marks: chapters, various kinds spaces, etc., but this is not yet widely accepted. Separately, it is necessary to say about the hyphen. First of all, it must be strictly distinguished from a dash: they differ in style (the hyphen is 2-3 times shorter: (-), (--) and functionally: the dash is exclusively a punctuation sign, and the hyphen has 2 or 3 different functions. Main the function of the hyphen is orthographic: it forms a semi-continuous spelling of some words: in our opinion, in an adult way, someone, someone, someone, firstly, secondly, etc., within the limits of spelling the hyphen; is used as a sign for transferring words from one line to another: sister, sister or sister. But a hyphen can also be a punctuation sign - stand between the defined noun and. single application: Masha the playful girl, Anika the warrior, the western rogue, the old fisherman, the old mother, the spring beauty, the Ossetian cab driver, etc.
IN lately in some scientific texts, a single oblique line—a fractional bar—has often been used to signify the conjunction or, in particular when dividing the conjunctions and, or: and/or, i.e. Next comes the text, which can either be attached to the previous text, or be in a divisive relationship with it. The fractional line in this meaning is also a punctuation mark. This function also uses parentheses. Let's give an example of such brackets: Chapters and paragraphs in books have, as a rule, “an independent number and (or) title” (according to the Dictionary of Publishing Terms). Instead of parentheses, you can use a slash here; “independent number and/or title.” The fractional slash is listed in the Morse code symbol system. In general, the following “alphabet” of punctuation marks is obtained (pay attention to the order in which they are listed):
- dot (.),
- colon (:),
- ellipses (….),
- semicolon (;),
- comma (,),
- commas (,),
- quotation marks: a) paws (“,”) b) Christmas trees (“”),
- question mark (?),
- exclamation mark (!),
- hyphen or dash (in punctuation role) (--),
- dash (--),
- double dash (---),
- slash (/),
- bracket ()),
- brackets: (),
- footnotes (*),
- paragraph, or indentation.
Each of us at school had to write dictations in our native language. And, probably, the most offensive thing was the reduction in the final grade due to a missing or extra comma. Let's find out why this symbol and others like it are so important in language, and what science specializes in this issue.
What does punctuation study?
At the end of the previous sentence there is a familiar one that signals to every reader that this is a question, not a statement. It is on the study of such signal elements that such a science as punctuation concentrates.
Moreover, she specializes not only in the formation and regulation of norms and rules for setting punctuation marks, but also studies their history.
What is it for?
Having learned what punctuation is studying, it is worth paying attention to its practical value. After all, for example, the practical significance of spelling is clear to most of us - if you don’t teach people to write correctly, it will become unclear to others what they want to say: flight or litter, etc. At the same time, many “victims” of school punctuation repressions are still perplexed : what difference does it make where to put a comma, why is it needed at all, and why a whole science was formed to study it.
Let's figure it out. So, punctuation is important to make the text easier to understand. With its help, sentences or their parts are separated from each other. This allows the writer to concentrate on the thought he needs.
To more clearly understand the meaning of punctuation marks, it is worth recalling the “bearded” example from the cartoon “In the Land of Unlearned Lessons” - “Execution cannot be pardoned.”
The life of the main character, Vitya Perestukin, depended on where the comma was placed. If he had put it this way: “Execute, cannot be pardoned,” Vita would have faced death. Fortunately, the boy correctly translated the sign: “You cannot execute, but have mercy,” and thus was saved.
In addition to emphasizing certain parts of a sentence, punctuation often helps to understand its meaning.
For example, if you simply put a period at the end of the sentence “Our mother has come,” this will be a statement of the fact of the mother’s arrival.
If you replace it with a question mark, it will no longer be a statement of a fait accompli, but a question: “Has our mother come?”
Etymology of the term
Having considered what punctuation studies and why it is needed, we can pay attention to the origin of this concept.
The term under study was derived from the Latin word punctum, which translates as a point. Based on this, we can assume that the first punctuation mark in history is precisely the period (at least in Russian punctuation this is so).
It is believed that the ancient Greeks were the first to use it as a sign to end a sentence or even an entire paragraph.
Punctuation marks
Knowing what punctuation studies, it is worth going into more detail on this. In other words, let's pay attention to punctuation marks. They are also called punctuation and are elements of writing necessary to achieve such goals.
The main ones are:
- Separation/highlighting of words, phrases, semantic segments in a sentence or whole text.
- They indicate grammatical and sometimes logical connections between words.
- They indicate the emotional coloring of the sentence and its communicative type.
- They signal the completion/incompleteness of a statement/thought.
Unlike words, punctuation symbols are not parts of a sentence, although they perform very important functions in it.
The need for such signs is emphasized by the fact that in most text editors, when checking spelling, punctuation errors are highlighted in a separate color - green, while spelling errors are highlighted in red.
Types of punctuation marks that are in the Russian language
To remember exactly which separating characters are used in Russian, it is worth remembering any lesson about punctuation. It necessarily mentioned most of these elements. All of them are divided into two categories: paired and unpaired.
The first is a much smaller number: quotes "", brackets (), 2 commas and 2 dashes.
They serve to highlight a word, phrase or part of a sentence and are always used together, functioning as a single whole.
In this case, quotation marks are also used to highlight names in Cyrillic and as a designation of direct speech.
By the way, the most common mistakes in punctuation of paired characters is forgetting to put the second one.
There are significantly more unpaired punctuation symbols. They are divided into groups according to their direct functions. Moreover, some of them are capable of performing not one, but two roles at once.
Analyzing the above, you will notice that nothing was said about the apostrophe. However, this symbol is a spelling symbol, not a punctuation symbol. Therefore, we cannot talk about him in this context.
History of Russian punctuation
IN Russian Empire Punctuation as such did not exist until the second half of the 15th century. It was only in the 80s that the dot began to be used.
About 40 years later, commas began to be used in grammar.
The combination of these characters into one (semicolon) happened later. Moreover, checking the punctuation of ancient texts showed that it initially served as a question mark. So if, when reading a document dating back to earlier than the 18th century, there is a question mark, we can conclude that the paper is probably a fake.
However, since the 18th century. a special symbol began to be used to indicate a question. By the way, during the same period, the exclamation mark began to be used in the empire, which initially signaled surprise, and not an exclamation. That is why it was called "amazing".
The first paired symbols in the grammar of the Russian language were parentheses, first noted when checking punctuation in a document of 1619.
Dashes, quotation marks and ellipsis also appeared only in the 18th century. Moreover, one of their first and main popularizers was Nikolai Karamzin.
Unusual punctuation marks that are not used in modern Russian
In addition to the symbols that are well known to us, there are a number of signs that are not recognized by Russian and many other grammars. If you try to put them in a text editor, you will definitely receive a message about the need to correct the punctuation in the sentence.
- Interrobang is a hybrid of question and exclamation marks.
- Rhetorical question mark looking like a mirror image regular symbol this kind. It was used in English only for a few decades at the end of the 17th century.
- Ironic sign. Externally similar to the above, but slightly smaller and placed at the beginning of the sentence. Originated in France in the 19th century.
- A love symbol that is recommended to be used in greeting cards. It looks like a question mark and its reflection, together forming a heart.
- The consonant symbol looks like two exclamation marks written from one point. Symbolizes the expression of goodwill.
- A sign of confidence. It looks like an exclamation symbol crossed out in the form of a cross.
- Authoritative. Similar to the previous one, but it is crossed out not by the direct line, but by the league. Used in orders or advice.
- Asterism. Looks like three stars arranged in an inverted pyramid. Previously, it served to separate semantic chapters, as well as parts of books, or to indicate minor breaks in a long text.
- Exclamation and question commas. Designed for intonation highlighting of words or phrases within a sentence.
Punctuation(from lat. punctum - point) is a section of the Russian language that studies punctuation, as well as the punctuation system itself. Punctuation in Russian serves in order to convey as accurately as possible in writing what the author wanted to express. Punctuation rules created in order to regulate the intonation structure of speech, as well as syntactic and semantic relations in language.
We all remember the greatness and power of our language. This means not only its lexical richness, but also its flexibility. This also applies to punctuation - there are both strict rules and guidelines that depend on the situation, stylistic features and meaning of the text.
Punctuation in Russian speech achieved through punctuation. Punctuation marks- This graphic symbols necessary to convey the intonation and meaning of a sentence, as well as to place certain accents in speech.
In Russian there are the following punctuation marks:
1) End of sentence marks: period, question mark and exclamation mark;
2) Sentence separation marks: comma, dash, colon and semicolon;
3) Signs highlighting individual parts of a sentence: quotes and parentheses.
I came home late. Why is the bedroom light still on? That's right, she was waiting for me! “Back at work again?” - she asked tiredly. The apartment smelled of medicine (she probably drank valerian tincture so as not to worry), so I tried to calm her down and go to bed as soon as possible. All the events of that day flashed before my eyes: a scandal at work; a reprimand from the boss who unfairly blamed me for what happened; walking through the city at night in thought.
Punctuation marks can be repeated and combined. For example, the use of a question mark and an exclamation mark at the same time indicates that we have rhetorical question (a question that does not require an answer or the answer to which everyone already knows):
Who knew that everything would happen exactly like this?!
How long?!
Can also be combined comma and dash. This combination allows you to connect different values:
A cool wind blew, it became dark in the forest, and a summer village evening was approaching.
This combination of punctuation marks can also be explained by the use different designs, for example, references in a sentence with a dash between the subject and the predicate:
You, brother, are the dearest person left on earth for me.
Despite the fact that in the Russian language there are cases when there are no strict rules for the use of certain punctuation marks, even in such cases there are certain recommendations. For example, are there such cases basic punctuation, that is, one that is given preference. For example, the main punctuation mark when using inserted structures is parentheses:
After yesterday's downpour, all of us (except Anna, who happened to have a raincoat) fell ill with a cold.
In this case, it is allowed to highlight the inserted structure using a dash (a minor punctuation mark in this case):
He sat down thoughtfully on the bench - it was wet after the rain - and thought about what happened today.
All punctuation rules and punctuation rules we will look in more detail in subsequent articles.
Punctuation.
Punctuation is a set of rules about the placement of punctuation marks. The purpose of punctuation is to provide the reader with a correct understanding of the meaning of what is written. The basis of punctuation is the semantic division of speech. Often the semantic division corresponds to its grammatical division, and in oral speech and its intonation division; in other words, semantic division is expressed grammatically and intonationally. In this case, we can talk about the coincidence of semantic, grammatical and intonation bases for placing punctuation marks, or about the structural and semantic basis of punctuation.
However, there are cases when the three indicated grounds: semantic, grammatical and intonation – may not coincide. Thus, often the semantic and grammatical division of speech does not coincide with its intonational division. Often the main and subordinate parts with the conjunction “what” are not differentiated intonationally: They say that he will arrive soon. And on the contrary, whole sentences are often intonationally divided from a semantic and grammatical point of view; for example, there is almost always a pause between the fairly common subject and the predicate (Two-story merchant houses of the middle of the last century ll sadly stretched along the entire embankment) and between the prepositive fairly common adverbial adverbial and the rest of the sentence (At six o'clock on a clear May morning ll Maya went out into the garden) and etc. under In all such cases, as the above examples show, punctuation marks are placed (or not placed) depending on the semantic and grammatical division (or lack thereof) and regardless of intonation division (or lack thereof).
On the other hand, there are often cases when the semantic division does not find support in the grammatical, i.e. gram. division is not expressed in special forms. In these cases, the only basis for placing a punctuation mark is semantic division; the corresponding grammatical and intonation division suggests punctuation marks. So, for example, the segment of speech “the sun is shining, the birds are singing” can be grammatically and intonationally presented as two independent sentences (The sun is shining. The birds are singing) and as a complex sentence (The sun is shining, the birds are singing). Thus, the grammatical and intonational division of a given segment of speech depends on its semantic interpretation, expressed by punctuation marks. An exception is a recording of oral speech from a voice - a dictation - when intonation can tell the writer the semantic division of speech. Ultimately, both homogeneous and heterogeneous definitions, sometimes introductory words and members of a sentence (He may be at school and He may be at school) and other constructions differ in meaning.
Finally, there are also cases when the semantic (and intonational) division contradicts the grammatical one. For example: She reminded me to take a basin and a shaving brush. And boot cream. And a brush. From the point of view of the grammatical combination, “both boot cream and a brush” are homogeneous additions, but the author distinguishes them in meaning and intonation into independent sentences and expresses this punctuationally.
Thus, in all the cases considered, the basis for placing punctuation marks is precisely the semantic division of speech, which may coincide with grammatical and intonation divisions, but may not coincide with one of them and even contradict it.
Punctuation marks and their functions.
The following punctuation marks are used in Russian punctuation: period, question mark, exclamation mark, ellipsis, comma, semicolon, colon, dash, parentheses, quotation marks. The function of a punctuation mark is also performed by paragraph indentation, or a red line.
Punctuation marks perform two main functions: 1) separation, 2) emphasis. Some of the punctuation marks serve only for separation (separating punctuation marks) - these are single punctuation marks: period, semicolon, exclamation and question marks, ellipsis, colon; This also includes paragraph indentation. With the help of these signs, sentences are separated from each other, the predicative parts of some complex sentences, sometimes homogeneous members and other designs.
Other punctuation marks serve only for emphasis (emphasizing punctuation marks) - these are double signs: brackets and quotes. With the help of these signs, introductory and intercalary phrases and sentences (brackets) and direct speech (quotes) are distinguished.
The third punctuation marks (comma and dash) are multifunctional, i.e. can act both as separating and as releasing, depending on the specific conditions in which they are used.
Thus, with the help of a comma, both parts of a complex sentence and homogeneous members can be separated from each other; With the help of a dash, in some cases, parts of complex sentences, homogeneous members from a generalizing word, some members of a sentence from others in some incomplete sentences and in other constructions are separated.
Using commas, various isolated phrases, addresses, and introductory words are highlighted; using a dash, introductory and intercalary sentences can be highlighted.
In some cases, as, for example, in sentences with direct speech, complex combinations of emphasizing and separating signs are used.
The indicated basic functions of punctuation marks are often complicated by more specific, semantic-distinguishing functions. Thus, the signs of the end of a sentence not only separate one sentence from another, but also express what a given sentence is in terms of the purpose of the statement or the degree of emotionality: He will not come. He won't come? He won't come! Indicative in this regard is the use of punctuation marks in non-union sentences, in which punctuation marks also carry a semantic load and signal the grammatical meaning of non-union sentences. So, for example, in the sentence “He doesn’t come, she’s waiting”, enumeration relations are expressed, and in the sentence “He doesn’t come, she’s waiting” - adversative relations.
The main functions of all punctuation marks, as well as their semantic distinguishing functions, are described in the set of rules of Russian punctuation.
Methods of transmitting someone else's speech
In the process of communication, there is often a need to convey someone else’s speech (this term usually means both the speech of another person and one’s own speech spoken earlier). Moreover, in some cases it is important to convey not only the content, but also the very form of someone else’s speech (its exact lexical composition and grammatical organization), and in others - only the content; therefore, in some cases, accurate reproduction of someone else's speech is mandatory, but in others it is not necessary.
In accordance with these tasks, the language has developed special ways of transmitting someone else's speech: 1) forms of direct transmission (direct speech); 2) forms of indirect transmission (indirect speech). Sentences with direct speech are specifically designed to accurately reproduce someone else’s speech (its content and form), and sentences with indirect speech- only to convey the content of someone else's speech. These are the most common forms of transmitting someone else's speech.
In addition to them, there are other forms designed to convey only the topic, the subject of someone else’s speech, to include elements of someone else’s speech in the author’s speech and to solve other expressive and stylistic problems. Thus, we can talk about a whole system of forms of transmitting someone else’s speech.
Direct speech.
Sentences with direct speech are a non-union (intonation and semantic) combination of parts, in one of which - the author's words - the very fact of someone else's speech is established and its source is named, and in the other - direct speech - the alien speech itself is reproduced. For example: Kirov replied: “Astrakhan will not be surrendered.”
In addition to words indicating the very fact of someone else’s speech and its source, the author’s words may include words indicating the addressee of direct speech, various circumstances accompanying it, as well as words characterizing the person pronouncing it, the manner of pronunciation, etc. For example: - What is this? – Sokolovich asked sternly and even anxiously, stopping.
Words introducing direct speech can accurately denote processes of thought or speech (said, ordered, thought, asked, etc.). Such words usually require mandatory dissemination; the part containing direct speech makes up for their semantic deficiency. The connection between the author's words and direct speech in such sentences is closer.
In other cases, words introducing direct speech do not denote the processes of speech and thought themselves, but the actions or feelings that accompany them (grin, stand up, wink; rejoice, be upset, be horrified, etc.). Such words usually do not necessarily need to be distributed in a part containing direct speech; therefore, the connection between the author's words and direct speech in these cases is less close. This method of conveying someone else’s speech is close to the direct inclusion of someone else’s speech in the author’s narrative.
1) When prepositioning the author's words, the sentence can be divided: a) into two parts (the author's words - direct speech) or b) into three parts (the author's words - direct speech - continuation of the author's narration). In these cases, direct speech explains, reveals the content of the word in front of it with the meaning of speech or thought. When prepositioning author's words, the order of the main members in them is usually direct: the subject is in the first place, the predicate is in the second.
2) When postpositioning the author’s words, the sentence is divided into two parts: PR – AC. In this case, direct speech is explained by the author’s words, which are less independent here than with preposition. With the postposition of the AC, the order of the main members in them is reversed: the predicate is in the first place, the subject is in the second.
3) With interposition AC, the sentence is divided into three parts: PR – AC – continuation of PR. When interposing ACs, they are close in their role to introductory sentences. The order of the main terms in this case is reversed. In interpositive AS there can be two verbs with the meaning of speech or thought, the first of which refers to direct speech standing before the words of the author, the second - after the words of the author. Such cases represent a mixture of the positional types discussed above.
Direct speech is intended to accurately reproduce someone else's speech in form. It may include one or more sentences, different in their structure, intonation, modality, and time plan. Any living design can be reproduced in PR colloquial speech, including those that include interjections, addresses, introductory words and other elements. In PR, pronouns are used not from the point of view of the author conveying someone else's speech, but from the point of view of the one to whom it belongs.
Indirect speech.
Sentences with indirect speech are NGNs with explanatory-objective clauses: Petya asked me not to be late.
Sentences with CD do not reproduce someone else's speech, but convey its content. Many forms of lively colloquial speech cannot be included in the CD, for example, addresses, interjections, many modal words and particles, forms of the imperative mood, a number of infinitive constructions, etc.
In the CD the intonation originality of someone else's speech cannot be expressed. Pronouns and personal forms of verbs in the Kyrgyz Republic are used not from the point of view of the person who owns someone else’s speech, but from the point of view of the author conveying the content of someone else’s speech.
The main part of such sentences gives the same information as in the words of the author in the PR. Subordinate clause, containing KR, refers to one of the main words that requires mandatory distribution. Therefore, the circle of words introducing KR is much narrower than the circle of words introducing PR: KR is introduced only with words that directly indicate speech or thought (says, said, thought, asked, asked, ordered, question, thought, etc.).
In sentences with CD, the part that conveys the content of someone else’s speech is often in postposition.
Sentences with various conjunctions are intended to convey the content of types of foreign speech of different modalities. Sentences with the conjunction " What" convey the content of narrative sentences with affirmative or negative modality. Sentences with conjunctions “as if, as if” also convey the content of narrative sentences, but with a tinge of uncertainty and conjecture. Sentences with the conjunction “to” convey the content of incentive sentences in someone else’s speech.
Sentences with various allied words (interrogative-relative pronouns) convey the content of interrogative sentences in someone else's speech (indirect question). If the question in someone else’s speech is framed only intonationally or with the help of interrogative particles, then in an indirect question the conjunction particle “whether” or the combination “whether...or” is used: I was asked if I would agree to give another lecture.
Improperly direct speech.
In this case, someone else’s speech seems to merge with the author’s, without being directly distinguished from it either by words indicating the fact of the utterance of someone else’s speech and its source (with PR and CR), or by a change in the pronominal plan (with PR and the direct inclusion of someone else’s speech in the narrative) , nor a special form subordinate clause(with CR). In such cases, the author, as it were, transforms into his heroes and, talking about their thoughts, conveying their speech, resorts to the grammatical, lexical and phraseological means that his heroes would resort to in the depicted situation. Such transmission of someone else's speech (NPR) is a literary device with which a writer can introduce the specific speech of the characters into the author's narrative, thereby characterizing his characters.
NPR has no special syntactic forms. It is similar to CR due to the use of pronouns, and to PR – comparative freedom in conveying the features of someone else’s speech. Much more freely than in the indirect one, various phraseological units and non-free syntactic models characteristic of live colloquial speech are transferred to the NPR.
NPR is usually an independent sentence or a series of them, which are directly included in the author’s narration, or continue one of the ways of conveying someone else’s speech, or follow the mention of the subject, topic of someone else’s speech, developing this topic. For example: “She was surprised that time was passing so slowly, and was horrified that there were still six hours left until midnight. Where to kill these six hours? What phrases should I say? How to behave with your husband? Here the description of the heroine’s thoughts and feelings is replaced by NPR.
In the form of NPR, the unspoken thoughts of the hero are more often conveyed. Therefore, in the previous sentences, verbs such as “think, remember, feel, regret, worry”, etc. are often (but not always) used.
Transferring the subject, topic of someone else's speech.
The subject of someone else's speech can be expressed in a simple sentence using additions to verbs with the meaning of speech or thought. The topic, the subject of someone else's speech can be indicated in the subordinate explanatory part if in the main part it corresponds to demonstrative words with the prepositions “about, about” (about that, about that). For example: And mom talked about the elephant and how the girl asked about his legs.
Quote.
A quotation is a verbatim excerpt from a work that the author of another work cites to confirm or explain his thoughts. Along with this, it can also play an emotionally expressive role - to strengthen what was said earlier, to give it a particularly expressive character. Also, a quotation can be a source, a starting point for reasoning, especially if the work from which it is taken is the subject of special consideration.
In its structure, a quotation can be a sentence, a combination of sentences, a phrase and words that are key to a given text.
1. Sentences with a quotation are two-part (the author’s words are a quotation) and in their structure and punctuation are no different from sentences with direct speech. If a sentence that is a quotation is not given in full, then an ellipsis is placed in place of the omitted members of the sentence.
2. Quotes can be included in the text as relatively independent parts of it, without the words of the author.
3. Quotes can be entered into the CD. In this case, the quotation usually follows the explanatory conjunction and begins with a lowercase letter.
4. Special introductory words and sentences may also indicate the source when quoting.
To include quotations in the text, the forms of quoted words, such as nouns, verbs, etc., can be changed.