Stefan Batory. Formidable opponent of Ivan the Terrible

The role of Stefan Batory in the history of Belarus

Brief biography

Born in Transylvania, the son of Prince Stephen IV Bathory and Katarzyna Telegdi, daughter of the crown treasurer Stefan Telegdi. Studied at the University of Padua. In 1571-1576 - Transylvanian prince.

After the flight of King Henry of Valois in 1574, a period of kinglessness began in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Orthodox Western Russian gentry (among whom Krzysztof Grajewski stood out) nominated Tsar Ivan IV as candidates for the Polish crown - in order to conclude a union with the Moscow state and conduct a joint struggle against the Turks and Crimean Tatars. Then, the Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II and the Austrian Archduke Ernst were nominated as candidates, who also adhered to the course of fighting Turkey and were supported by Moscow.

The Turkish Sultan sent a letter to the gentry demanding that they not elect Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II as king, and Stefan Batory was named as one of the contenders.

The Tatar raid in September-October 1575 on the eastern lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Podolia, Volhynia and Chervonnaya Rus) pushed the middle-class gentry to the candidacy of Batory. At her insistence, it was he who was elected king of Poland. In 1576, members of the electoral Diet of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) proclaimed the Transylvanian prince and king of Poland Stefan Batory as Grand Duke of Lithuania. In 1578, Stefan acquired the rights to the throne of the Livonian Kingdom for the Bathory family. Being a Hungarian (Szekely) by nationality, Stefan almost did not speak the national languages of the population under his control and spoke to his subjects in Latin, in which he studied at the Italian university.

For the last few years he lived in the city of Grodno, where he reconstructed the Old Castle [see. fig.2] for a new royal residence, but died suddenly in December 1586 (the autopsy of his body is considered the first such medical act in Eastern Europe); He was initially buried in Grodno, but later his coffin was transported to Krakow. [2]

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The role of Stefan Batory in the history of Belarus

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Stefan Batory as one of the most consistent and determined opponents of Tsar Ivan the Terrible in Livonian War(1558-1583). Largely thanks to his efforts and the gift of leadership of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, it was possible to reduce to zero all the successes of the Russian troops and impose a difficult treaty on Moscow, which deprived the country of access to the sea for more than a hundred years.

Origin

The Batory family is one of the most ancient Hungarian dynasties. The first information about these magnates from the city of Chaumier dates back to the 11th century. In addition to Stefan himself (based on the Hungarian motif - Istvan), the princes of Transylvania left their mark on history: Zsigmond, Kristof and Istvan - the father of the future king of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth. Elizabeth or Erzsebet Bathory left behind a bad reputation. She holds a sad record for the largest number documented murders ever committed by a woman. Over the course of 25 years, she personally sent about seven hundred people to the next world.

Early years

Very little information remains about the childhood of Stefan Batory. One can only assume that his upbringing was not much different from what representatives of noble dynasties gave their offspring. He was born on September 27, 1533, while his father, Istvan, was acting as Hungarian palatine - effectively second in command to the king. It is known that at the age of 16 Stefan studied at the University of Padua, but, apparently, he was of little interest in science. Already in his youth, Batory showed a penchant for military affairs.

In the service of the emperor

In the 16th century, Hungary, experiencing a constant threat of attack from the Turks, was increasingly drawn into the sphere of influence of the Holy Roman Empire. Its ruler, Ferdinand, bore the title of Hungarian king from 1526. It was to him that Stefan Batory went to serve. Europe, split by contradictions between the largest states, was going through difficult times in those years. In addition to covering everything large areas Reformation, had to constantly defend against the power at its zenith Ottoman Empire. It was in the army of Emperor Ferdinand that Stephen first encountered the Turks. However, the young warrior had to face royal ingratitude. In 1553 he was captured. The emperor refused to pay a ransom for him.

Change of sovereign

As a result of numerous victories, the Turks were able to create a kingdom dependent on the Ottoman Empire on part of the Hungarian territory. The Turkish protege Janos Zapolyai was placed on the throne. After Ferdinand refused to pay the ransom, Batory offered his services to Janos. He, who needed noble and strong supporters, agreed.

But Bathory had to leave the military craft for some time. He received the position of Ambassador of Zapolya. One of his diplomatic missions was sent to Vienna, and there he fell directly into the hands of Ferdinand. Since it was impossible to execute the ambassador, the emperor put him under house arrest, in which Batory spent two years. During this time, he improved the knowledge acquired at the university: he read a lot, especially the works of ancient historians.

Entry into Transylvania

The emperor still had to free his prisoner. Upon his return to Transylvania, Batory discovered that the local nobility treated him with sympathy. He wasted no time and established close relationships with many influential people. This helped a lot a few years later.

Janos Zapolya had no children, so the question of succession to the throne was very pressing. The prince had a negative attitude towards Batory's growing popularity and even suspected him of treason. After much deliberation, he decided to appoint treasurer Kaspar Bekes as his successor. But after the death of the prince in 1571, the nobility unanimously demanded that Bekesh renounce his rights. Stefan Batory was elected prince. The treasurer tried to resist and even organized several uprisings, but in 1575 Batory finally defeated his troops and confiscated all his possessions.

Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

In the neighboring state, formed as a result of the union between Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, a curious system of replacing the throne was established. Local lords did not want the establishment of the power of one dynasty, so elections were held after the death of one king. Batory first thought about the possibility of taking the Polish throne in 1573, but the French prince Henry of Valois won the election. But he could not stay on the throne: the autocracy of the gentry, a different culture and the difficult political situation in France became the reasons why Henry secretly left the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in 1575. The gentry was forced to announce new elections.

King of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth

After Henry's flight, three powerful monarchs laid claim to the Polish throne: the Russian Tsar Ivan the Terrible and Stefan Batory. Poland, which suffered heavy losses in the Livonian War, needed a leader capable of breaking the chain of failures. The candidacy of Ivan the Terrible suited part of the gentry, since his election made further fighting. But the Polish Senate chose Maximilian. The gentry opposed this, realizing that the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth risked losing its independence under the scepter of the emperor. As a result of an agreement between the Senate and the gentry in 1576, Stefan Batory was elected to the Polish throne with the condition of marrying the sister of the former king Sigismund.

Batory immediately showed a tough temper. The magnates, who took advantage of the period of kinglessness to strengthen their power, did not want to take into account the opinion of the king. King Stefan Batory, with the support of the middle and minor nobility, launched a decisive attack on the power of the magnates. Immediately after ascending the throne, he invaded the city of Bansk, where the local nobility especially persistently sought the election of Maximilian. The king's most stubborn opponents were executed.

Reforms of Stefan Batory

The new king sought to introduce the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to European science. On his initiative, the Vilna Academy opened in 1578. Batory contributed to the spread of colleges of the Jezu Order in the country, famous for their organizational skills, as well as for their success in spreading education.

Another important undertaking of the king was the creation of an organization of Zaporozhye Cossacks. He endowed them with lands, allowed them to independently choose a hetman, reserving the right to hand over power insignia to him. The Cossack army subsequently formed an important part of Stefan Batory's troops.

Foreign policy

Batory inherited the Livonian War from King Sigismund. Ivan the Terrible, annoyed by his defeat, did not want to make peace. The army created as a result of Batory's reforms quickly showed the Russian Tsar his mistake. Already in 1577, the king recaptured Dinaburg and Wenden, and then Polotsk and Velikiye Luki, moving the war to Russian territories. Special page in military history was the siege of Pskov by King Stefan Batory. Its capture would have opened the way to the inner regions of the Muscovite kingdom, but the heroic resistance of the city’s defenders thwarted the king’s plans to quickly end the war on his terms. While Stefan Batory continued to stand near Pskov, Ivan the Terrible took an unexpected diplomatic step. He invited the papal legate Antonio Possevino as a mediator. In 1582, Stefan Batory signed the Yam-Zapolsky Treaty, according to which Rus' ceded all the captured lands in Livonia, but retained the original Russian cities.

Last years and death

At the end of his reign, Batory was busy strengthening the Lithuanian borders and even planned to move the capital to Vilna. At the same time, he worked to create a large anti-Turkish coalition, but when the troops were assembled and ready to go on a campaign, the king suddenly died. This happened on December 12, 1586.

The death of Batory on the eve of such an important event gave rise to rumors in society about his violent death. To establish the truth, an autopsy was performed - the first in Eastern Europe. However, it was not possible to prove poisoning.

Polish king (since 1575) and Grand Duke Lithuanian (1576-1586), son of Stephen IV, voivode of Transylvania.

Studied at the University of Padua. In 1571-1576 - Transylvanian prince.

The Turkish Sultan sent a letter to the gentry demanding that they not elect Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian II as king, and Stefan Batory was named as one of the contenders.

The Tatar raid in September-October 1575 on the eastern lands of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (Podolia, Volhynia and Chervonnaya Rus) pushed the middle-class gentry to the candidacy of Batory. At her insistence, it was he who was elected king of Poland. In 1576, members of the electoral Diet of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania (GDL) proclaimed the Transylvanian prince and king of Poland Stefan Batory as Grand Duke of Lithuania. Stefan was Hungarian by nationality, but he almost did not speak the national languages of the population under his control and spoke to his subjects in Latin, in which he studied at the Italian university.

Domestic policy

He strove to strengthen royal power, fought against magnates, and supported the Catholic clergy and Jesuits in opposing reform movements. For some time he was an ally of Turkey, then participated in the creation of an anti-Turkish league. He was one of the most determined and successful military opponents of the Moscow state.

"Of the internal reforms introduced by Batory in Poland, the organization of the Zaporozhye Cossacks, to whom he gave proper organization, allocated lands, allowed them to choose the hetman and all the military authorities themselves, reserving to the king the right to endow the hetman with a banner, “mace” and seal and approve him after taking the oath of allegiance. Wanting to restore not only political, but also spiritual peace in Poland, Batory tried to bring dissidents to an agreement with Catholicism, for which, however, he never resorted to violence, but tried to act humanely and peacefully."

The king ruled the country without knowing the languages of his subjects (he used Latin), regularly declared his personal commitment to Catholicism, and in order to implement numerous reforms he constantly needed competent executors. Only an effectively functioning school system could provide him with such people. He saw it among the Jesuits. Therefore, he established the first college for Jesuits in his homeland in Kolozsvár (Kolozsvár, 1579). And then, within 5 years, Jesuit collegiums were founded in Lublin (1581), Polotsk (1582), Riga (1582), Kalisz (1583), Nesvizh (1584), Lvov (1584) and Dorpat (1586). To found collegiums in Grodno and Brest, the province of the order and the king’s lifetime did not have enough human resources.

Due to the focus foreign policy to the east Batory sought to develop infrastructure public administration within the borders of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, planned to move the capital of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth to Grodno, where he rebuilt the royal castle, and supported the Jesuits in their desire to create a higher educational institution in ON On April 1, 1579, he issued a privilege, according to which the Jesuit college established in Vilna in 1570 was transformed into the Vilna Academy and University of the Society of Jesus (Almae Academia et Universitas Vilnensis Societatis Jesu). The bull of Pope Gregory XIII on October 30, 1579 confirmed the privilege of Stefan Batory, the date of which is considered to be the founding date of Vilnius University.

Outstanding commander

When recruiting the army, Batory abandoned the gentry's militia, widely used mercenaries, mainly Hungarians and Germans, and tried to create a standing army by recruiting soldiers from the royal estates.

Livonian War

In 1579-1582 he took part in the Livonian War (1558-1583) and through skillful maneuvering achieved a number of victories over the troops of the Moscow state, nullifying all the gains of Ivan the Terrible in Livonia. Cavalry detachments from Batory's army occupied the Smolensk and Chernigov regions. But after the unsuccessful siege of Pskov, the king concluded a truce with the Moscow state (Peace of Yam-Zapolsky).

Memory

The university, restored in 1919 in Vilnius, was named after Stefan Batory (Stefan Batory University). Batory's name is given to a street in Vilnius leading from the city center in the direction of Polotsk, and one of the streets in Grodno.

In 1994, in the Great Courtyard of the Vilnius University ensemble, a memorial tablet was installed in memory of the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania Stefan Batory, the founder of the Vilna Academy and the University of the Society of Jesus, with an inscription on Latin from the 16th-century Polish chronicler Martin Cromer.

Stefan Batory. Portrait 1570s

At this time in Poland there was important event. King Sigismund Augustus died, and with him the Jagiellonian family died out. In 1569, when Lithuania was inextricably united with Poland, the right to elect kings at diets was established. Now that the royal house had ceased, some of the Polish and Lithuanian lords decided to elect the second son of the Moscow Tsar, Feodor, as king. But the king hesitated, hesitated, and at this time the ambassador French king deftly acted in favor of Henry, the brother of his sovereign, and did not spare either gold or promises. Henry was elected at the Diet. However, he soon left Poland, since with the death of his brother the French throne was cleared for him. Again, Lithuanian and Polish dignitaries had to choose their own king.

At this time, relations between Germany and Moscow began. Emperor Maximilian, wanting to place his son on the Polish throne, asked Ivan the Terrible to help this matter and at the same time interceded with the king for Livonia. The Tsar, receiving the German ambassadors in all his greatness, amazed them with his splendor, luxury and wealth, and the Russian ambassadors, who came from the Tsar to the Emperor with letters and gifts, surprised him and all the courtiers with the peculiar diversity of their rich clothes. (A curious contemporary depiction of this embassy survives.)

However, neither Germany nor Moscow derived any benefit from these negotiations: the Polish throne did not go to either the German prince or the Russian prince - the Transylvanian governor, Stefan Batory, was elected in 1575.

Meanwhile, Ivan the Terrible immediately started a war in Livonia, as soon as the truce ended. War also broke out with Sweden; however, despite all the efforts of Magnus and the Russians, they failed to take possession of Revel, which was in the hands of the Swedes. But the campaign of the king himself in the summer of 1577 was very successful: city after city surrendered to him and his commanders. Having occupied the city of Volmar, Ivan the Terrible remembered that Kurbsky had written his letter here, he could not resist and again wrote a sarcastic message to his former governor.

It begins with the spelling out of the entire royal title, which already includes the words: “owner of the land of Livonia.” “If my iniquities,” the king humbly writes, “are greater than the sand of the sea, then I still hope for the mercy of God: He can drown my iniquities with the abyss of his mercy.” Then the tsar mentions the victories given to him by God over the Germans, Lithuania and the Tatars, again recalls the betrayals of the boyars who did not obey him, “they governed themselves as they wanted,” and at the end of the letter he caustically laughs at Kurbsky. “You said,” writes Ivan the Terrible, “there are no people (except you) in Rus'! No one to stand! Now you are gone... Who is taking the strong German cities? Strength life-giving cross takes cities... And what you wrote, that we sent you to distant cities as if in disgrace, you wrote this to yourself in annoyance. Now, by the will of God, we have gone further than your distant cities and crossed all your roads from Lithuania and to Lithuania with the feet of our horses, and walked on foot, and drank water in all those places... Can we now say that our horse’s feet were not everywhere? ? And to the city of Volmar, where you wanted to calm down from all your labors, and God brought us there for your rest. You thought that you had taken refuge here, but by the will of God we caught up with you here. You had to go further!”

But the king's triumph did not last long; As soon as he left Livonia, like Stefan Batory, the Swedes began to defeat the Russians. The Russians were severely defeated near Wenden. King Magnus, already married to the royal niece, handed himself over to the Poles.

Negotiations started by Stefan Batory led nowhere. Ivan the Terrible treated him condescendingly; as usual, he did not even want to call him “brother” in his letters, but called him “neighbor,” because Stefan became king not by his origin and not by the will of God, but by “rebellious human will.” (by election of the Sejm). Ivan the Terrible still called Livonia “his patrimony” and made no concessions.

Stefan Batory, upon ascending the throne, among other things, promised to return to Lithuania the lands taken from it by Moscow. He had proven, battle-hardened infantry, Hungarian and German, well armed, had many good guns, and therefore he counted on certain success in the fight against the disorganized and poorly armed hordes of Russians. Moreover, he himself was a very skillful leader.

The king thought that the war would be fought in Livonia, and sent a large army there; but Stefan Batory directed the blow in the other direction and in the summer of 1579 besieged Polotsk. Polotsk defended itself very stubbornly for more than three weeks. Residents diligently helped the soldiers and rushed to put out fires when they broke out from enemy shots; women and old people lowered themselves on ropes and took water from the Dvina under cannonballs; but, despite all the tenacity of the defense, the city was finally taken. Then, after a terrible massacre, Batory occupied the Sokol fortress.

The year 1580 was even more miserable for the Russians. Stefan Batory took city after city (Velizh, Usvyat, Velikiye Luki), and on the other hand, the Swedish commander Delagardi defeated the Russians in Estonia.

Ivan the Terrible humbled himself, lowered his speech in negotiations with the king, and began to speak more peacefully. The ambassadors to Stefan Batory were ordered to behave submissively: if the king does not get up, does not respond to the king’s bow, does not ask about his health, then leave all this without attention, even endure abuse and all sorts of insults, and “not to raise impolite words to the king.” don't talk."

The ambassadors offered Stefan Batory on behalf of the king Livonia, with the exception of four cities; but the king demanded all of Livonia, in addition to the concession of Sebezh and the payment of 400 thousand Hungarian gold for military expenses.

Ivan the Terrible was greatly annoyed by these new demands of Batory, and wrote him a reproachful letter. “We are looking for how to calm Christian blood, and you,” the letter said, “are looking for how to fight.”

Attempts to make peace on other terms also failed.

Stefan Batory set out on a new campaign, and sent a daring message to the king, where he called him the pharaoh of Moscow, a wolf, etc. “Why didn’t you come to us with your troops? – Batory asks Ivan the Terrible casually. – Why didn’t you defend your subjects? And the poor hen covers her chicks with her wings in front of the hawk and eagle, and you, the double-headed eagle (for this is your seal), hide!.. If you don’t want to shed Christian blood,” added Stefan Batory, “then let’s agree on a place and an hour, we’ll sit down.” get on our horses and fight among ourselves."

Stefan Batory, King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania, argued with Ivan the Terrible and admired the courage of the Russian soldiers.

Transylvanian Székely

Transylvanian Székely Istvan Bathory sounds very mysterious. Stefan Batory was born in Transylvania, or Erdei, or Semigradye, into a princely family. This is the territory of modern Romania - one that is covered in myths about evil spirits, sorcerers, magicians, sorcerers and Count Dracula.

Since ancient times, Transylvanians were considered the strongest sorcerers, and there were rumors that the princely family was cursed, and Bathory's fencing talent (he was one of the best fencers in Europe) was of a supernatural nature.

The aura of mystery and mysticism is combined in the portrait of Stefan Batory with excellent European education, university spirit and piety.

Legendary warrior

All of Central Europe respected Stefan Batory as a commander, and such respect was deserved. Stefan Batory became famous for successfully repelling the raids of the Tatars.

Soloviev in “History of Russia from Ancient Times” writes: “As a commander, Batory in Eastern Europe made the revolution in the method of waging war that had long been carried out in the West.”

In Batory's army there are almost all the nations of Europe: Poles, Lithuanians, Russians, Hungarians, Germans, Belgians, Scots, French, Italians.

Army reforms and personal valor established the king's reputation as an excellent warrior, capable of reconquering lands captured by others and repelling any raids. And indeed, military success almost always accompanied him.

Assault on Pskov

From the diary of priest Piotrovsky: “We admire Pskov. God! Which big city, definitely Paris! Help us, God, to cope with it.”

As you know, although Batory won the Livonian War, the valiant Pskov did not surrender to him. An amazing page of history: a city that lost its independence just 70 years ago, did not receive any military assistance from its king, and was incomparable in the number of soldiers with a huge army of mercenaries - repelled the attack.

Against Batory’s 100 thousand soldiers, he put up 7 thousand of his soldiers and about 10 thousand armed townspeople. Pskov residents found and stopped all 9 tunnels made under the city.

“The Russians are again putting log houses and tours in the gaps we made. And they correct them so well that they will be even stronger than they were before,” writes Secretary Batory.

And when the army captured the tower, they fired at it from a huge cannon: and the tower collapsed, killing both the enemies who entered it and the defenders in it.

Brother of bloody Elizabeth Bathory

The sister of the Polish king was included in the Guinness Book of Records. She is credited with being one of the most prolific serial killers of all time, with an estimated 650 young girls among her victims.

The Hungarian countess was punished for her atrocities with only a comfortable house arrest, while immediately after her death the countess's maids, called her accomplices, were brutalized. death penalty. Let us note that there is an alternative version, which insists that the charges were fabricated by the persecutors of Protestants.

"Cold" marriage

Upon ascending the throne, Stefan Batory married Anna Jagiellonka, the fifty-three-year-old daughter of the Polish king Sigismund I. After the wedding, he “dedicated three wedding nights to her” and no longer entered her bedroom, saying that she could come to him herself whenever she wanted .

However, one day, when Anna came to him, the king... ran away. Anna was seized with a fever. Their marriage existed at a distance: Stefan fought and was involved in politics, and his wife improved Warsaw. To Batory’s credit, it must be said that when Bishop Stanislav Karnkowski proposed a divorce to the couple and a second marriage to the king, Stefan resolutely refused.

Challenge to a duel by Ivan the Terrible

The correspondence between Stefan Batory and Ivan the Terrible has been preserved. Stefan in it also appears formidable, and also daring and courageous. At that time, of course, epistolary political etiquette was less developed, and Batory writes:

“You are not just some child, but the people of an entire city, from the oldest to the smallest, you destroyed, ruined, destroyed... Where is your brother Vladimir? Where are the many boyars and people? Beat me! You are not a sovereign to your people, but an executioner; you are accustomed to commanding your subjects as over cattle, and not as over people!”

He makes an amazing gesture: he attaches the book to the letter: “The greatest wisdom: know yourself; and so that you can get to know yourself better, I am sending you books that have been written about you all over the world...”

At the end of the letter, the king even challenges the king to a duel. Grozny, of course, avoided her, to which he received the answer: “And the hen covers her chicks with her wings, and you, two-headed eagle, are hiding!”

Latin speaker

A king who does not speak the languages of his subjects - here is another contrast in the portrait of Batory, whose full title is: “By the grace of God, the king of Poland, Grand Duke of Lithuania, Russian, Prussian, Masovian, Samogitian, Kiev, Volynian, Podlyashian, Inflantian, and also Prince of Semigrad." Peoples used to be called “languages”. But Stefan Batory spoke to them as if in English: in Latin, the former international language of that time. His Latin, it should be noted, was excellent, learned at an Italian university.

Of course, it was possible to communicate in Latin only with the elite who owned it. Once, talking with the Archbishop of Lvov, Stefan Batory mockingly declared: “I wonder how it is possible to become a Catholic archbishop without knowing Latin?” To which the archbishop replied: “Just as you can be a Polish king without knowing the Polish language.”