The beginning of colonization. The formation of the colonial system

The defeat of Abd al-Qadir was a turning point in the conquest of Algeria, allowing France to begin the forced modernization and Europeanization of life in Algerian society. Colonial conquest in economic terms meant, first of all, the seizure of land. In accordance with official decrees of the 1840s, the French administration confiscated the lands of deys, beys, part of the land property of Muslim spiritual institutions, as well as the lands of tribes that “took up arms against France.” During agrarian reforms 1843-1844. tribes were asked to document their rights to the lands they occupied. At the same time, most tribes used the land on the basis of customary law and did not have such documents. The French authorities recognized their lands as “ownerless” and expropriated them. Along with the “official” redistribution of property, the colonization fund was replenished by the purchase of private land holdings by Europeans. The redistribution of land especially accelerated after the defeat of Abd al-Qadir, but in 1863 ᴦ. Emperor Napoleon III, who did not like the colonists and feared the catastrophic dispossession of the Algerians, declared the tribes to be collective and irremovable owners of their lands. However, the area of ​​the land fund of colonization increased rapidly: in 1850 ᴦ. The colonists owned 115 thousand hectares in I860. - 365 thousand hectares, and in 1870 ᴦ. - 765 thousand hectares. As a result of conquest and colonization, half of the best lands of Algeria, not counting forests, mines and other economically valuable territories, were placed at the disposal of the French authorities and private individuals.

In parallel with the seizure of land, the French state began intensive economic development of the country. Large concession companies established in Algeria began in the 1860s to develop the country's natural resources (coal,

phosphorites, metal ores). To transport them, the first railways and highways were built, and telegraph communications were established. The processing of agricultural products was gradually expanded. In the 50s - 60s of the XIX century. Algeria became the most important market for the metropolis and a source of cheap mineral raw materials and food products (fruits, vegetables, wine). During these years, the orientation of local and European landowners towards selling products in the metropolis contributed to the gradual transformation of Algeria's subsistence economy into a commercial one.

At the same time, despite the significance and scale of the economic reconstruction of Algeria, the main result of the French conquest was still settler colonization. After the landing of the French expeditionary force in Algeria, all sorts of adventurers began to enter the country, seeking to profit from the plunder of the indigenous population. In the 1840s, they were joined by impoverished peasants and townspeople of France, Spain, and Italy, hoping to create a better life in a new place. Germans, Swiss, Greeks, Maltese, and Corsicans also joined this multilingual flow. As a result, the European presence developed at an ever-increasing pace: in 1833. there were 7.8 thousand Europeans in Algeria in 1840. - 27 thousand, and in 1847 ᴦ. - already 110 thousand people. Moreover, the French themselves made up no more than half of all immigrants. The French colonial authorities strongly encouraged the entry of non-French Europeans in order to swell the ranks of the European minority. At the same time, Algeria in the 19th century. was considered a reliable place of exile for convicts and political prisoners, most of whom, after serving their sentences, remained in the country. Finally, the metropolitan government forcibly resettled the unemployed here and gave refuge in Algeria to internally displaced persons who turned to them for help.

European immigrants who settled in the Algerian coastline relatively quickly took root in local soil. The bulk of them were quite poor, and their immigration was caused not by a thirst for profit, but by economic and political turmoil in their homeland. Unlike other French colonies, Algeria hosted a large, socially diverse and ethnically diverse European population. A mosaic combination of languages, manners and customs of the newcomers

The settlers were soon supplemented by mixed marriages in the French and non-French European environment. As a result, already 20-30 years after the start of colonization, a special social and ethnocultural type began to form ʼʼAlgerian-Europeanʼʼ. This circumstance played an important role in further development Algeria.

The formation of colonial orders in Algeria soon received political and legal form. Mode Second Republic(1848-1851) officially declared Algeria part of the national territory of France. The governor now had only military power, and the areas inhabited by Europeans were divided into three special departments. They received civil self-government and the right to send three deputies to the French parliament. At the same time, with the registration of power Napoleon III(1851 ᴦ.) Paris's attitude towards the Algerian colony changed noticeably. Among the colonists there were many political opponents of the newly-minted ruler of France, and already in 1852. he deprived Algeria of representation in parliament. Then, during the period Second Empire Napoleon II replaced the military governor ʼʼMinister of Algeria and Coloniesʼʼ, and in 1863 ᴦ. Algeria even declared ʼʼArab kingdomʼʼ, thereby trying to contrast the Arab-Berber traditional elites with the colonists. New policy Paris in Algeria was carried out created back in 1844 ᴦ. ʼʼArab bureausʼʼ- intermediary institutions between the French military command and the Arab-Berber leaders. In the 50s-60s of the XIX century. the role of the “Arab bureaus” was twofold - on the one hand, they limited the powers of local Arab sheikhs, and on the other hand, they suppressed the desires of European colonists to directly intervene in the management of “native affairs”.

The beginning of colonization. The formation of the colonial system - concept and types. Classification and features of the category "Beginning of colonization. Formation of the colonial system" 2017, 2018.

So, the state of Russia after the Great Troubles was similar to the state of Europe after the crisis of the 14th century: vast expanses of desolate lands, devastated half-extinct cities, a state that needed to be restored again - but at the same time an abundance of land, forests, natural resources that were inherited by the survivors. Like American farmers, the peasants could re-develop their country, they could plow as much as they wanted, and neither the landowners nor the weak state yet dared to oppress them, fearing a new uprising.

According to neo-Malthusian theory, a period of eco-social crisis should have been followed by a period of recovery. Pavlenko N. I., Kobrin V. B., Fedorov V. A. History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861. Tutorial for universities. M., 2002 P. 394

Gradually, peasants began to return to their native places, found new villages and clear the forest for arable land. The Moscow state gradually “replenished” and “came into dignity,” and during the “many time of peace and quiet,” as the source put it, “their stomachs became much fuller.” In the Zamoskovny region, the recovery was very rapid: the population that had fled to the North or to the Volga region returned to the outskirts of the capital, and already in the 1640s the population level that existed before the Time of Troubles was restored. However, when compared with the first half of the 16th century, the population did not reach its previous level. In the Novgorod region, the population in 1646 was four times less than in 1500. Cities were slowly restored: in the middle of the 17th century, the population of urban suburbs remained 2.5 times less than a century ago. In general, as noted above, the population in 1646 is estimated at 4.5-5 million. In the 1550s, according to A.I. Kopanev, the population was 9-10 million. Pavlenko N.I., Kobrin V. B., Fedorov V. A. History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861. Textbook for universities. M., 2002 P. 427

In 1646-1678, the population increased from 4.5-5 to 8.6 million. In the Novgorod region during this period, the population more than doubled. Huge role The construction of the 800-kilometer Belgorod Line, which was supposed to protect the southern regions from Tatar raids and provide the possibility of agricultural development of vast territories, played a role in the process of economic recovery. The construction of the fortified line lasted 12 years (1635-1646), 23 fortified cities, several dozen forts, five large earthen ramparts, each 25-30 km long, were built on the “line”. In 1648-1654, the Simbirsk Line was created, which continued the fortified line to the bank of the Volga.

In 1642-1648, in the counties located along the Belgorod border, most of the peasants were assigned to the sovereign and enrolled in the newly created dragoon regiments. The peasants were freed from taxes, they lived in their villages, plowed the land, and underwent military training once a week. The treasury provided the dragoons with weapons, and they had to carry them to the “line” guard service. The shortage of soldiers forced everyone to enlist in the regiments, even fugitives from the central regions - so many fugitives headed here. The Belgorod region was an abundant region: the yield of rye in the south was 2-3 times higher than in the central regions, and the reserves of bread in the farms of service people averaged about 500 poods. In 1639-42, the authorities offered to pay 7-10 money per day for work in the harvest, which in terms of grain is 14-20 kg. This was a generous payment, twice as much as they paid in the Moscow region - however, the wealthy peasants of the south did not want to work for this payment either.

If it were not for the constant wars and Tatar raids, many would envy the life of the settlers of the South.

The Belgorod line became a reliable obstacle to Tatar raids. Although the Tatars repeatedly devastated the Belgorod region, they never managed to break through the line. From the middle of the 17th century, strong colonization of the southern regions began; a stream of immigrants from the central regions rushed here. From the time of construction of the line until the end of the 17th century, plowing in the southern counties increased 7 times; The population increased at about the same rate. Since the 1670s, landowner colonization of the South began: landowners began to transfer their peasants on a massive scale to the “wild field” lands that had been demarcated by them; already in 1678, three quarters of the boyars had possessions in the South. “In Tula and Oryol and other places adjacent to that region,” said the report of the Discharge Order in 1681, “many of the sovereign’s close people... landowners and patrimonial owners built many villages and hamlets in wild fields... and thus in In the Moscow state, there is an abundance of bread and food supplies and the price for buying everything is cheap...” Pavlenko N. I., Kobrin V. B., Fedorov V. A. History of the USSR from ancient times to 1861. Textbook for universities. M., 2002 P. 508

These were the processes of great importance, after all, the Russian peasantry, pushed back into the northern forests by the Tatars, tried for centuries to reach the black soil steppes. After the victories of Ivan the Terrible, Rus' advanced beyond the Oka into the upper reaches of the Don - but during the Time of Troubles, the Tatars pushed the settlers back into the northern forests. Now Russia has finally managed to gain a foothold in the southern steppes; this meant that the power of the Russian state would grow due to the development of new fertile lands. The population crowded in the North now had the opportunity to move to the south, and the threat of new overpopulation was postponed for centuries. From the point of view of demographic structural theory, the process of colonization meant the expansion of the ecological niche - an increase in the means of subsistence, the consequence of which should have been a decrease in prices and an increase in real wages- those phenomena that were actually noted at the end of the 17th century.

In 1678, 1.8 million people already lived in the Black Earth Center, while in the old Non-Black Earth Center - 3.5 million. In the Belgorod region, there were 260 thousand boyar children who did not have serfs - “single-yarders”, who supplied 40 thousand soldiers to the army , dragoon, reitar. Service people had strong farms: on average there were 3 horses and 4 cows per yard. The palace peasants also lived well: in the Tambov district, most households had 2-3 horses, 2-3 cows and provided themselves with plenty of bread. Munchaev Sh. M., Ustinov V. V. History of Russia. M., 2000 P. 193

The entire territory of the country was divided into two parts, the old, “settled” regions, and the new, “settled” regions. According to Ya. E. Vodarsky for the second half XVII century, the area of ​​arable land in the “settled” regions increased from 8 to 13 million dessiatinas, and in the “settled” regions - from 4 to 16 million. Thus, being inferior in population, the new “settled” regions already surpassed the old “settled” ones in terms of plow size. The south became a supplier of grain for the central regions; at the end of the 70s, these supplies reached 1 million poods, and the government more than once noted with satisfaction the increase in “grain replenishment”.

Neo-Malthusian theory argues that the recovery period is characterized by relatively slow urban growth. Indeed, the presence of free land did not create an incentive for peasants to engage in crafts and move to cities, so in the 17th century cities grew relatively slowly. Russian cities of this period were more fortresses and administrative centers than trade and craft settlements. The "service people" who lived in the cities - nobles, archers, Cossacks, etc. - outnumbered the "townspeople", traders and artisans. According to Ya. E. Vodarsky, in 1652 the urban population was 247 thousand males, including 139 thousand servicemen and 108 thousand townspeople, in 1678 - 329 thousand people, including 149 thousand servicemen and 134 thousand townspeople. The population of Moscow in the 1640s numbered about 38 thousand male residents, including about 20 thousand servicemen, 10 thousand townspeople and 8 thousand “others”; by 1680, the number of residents increased to 51 thousand, including 20 thousand servicemen, 20 thousand townspeople and 11 thousand “others”. Other cities were much smaller in size than Moscow; in Yaroslavl at the end of the 17th century there were 8 thousand male residents, in Pskov, Kazan and Astrakhan - 5 thousand. Novgorod, once larger than Moscow, was in deep decline, the male population of this city did not exceed 3 thousand. Munchaev Sh M., Ustinov V.V. History of Russia. M., 2000 P. 294

Among the urban population, the rich commercial and industrial elite stood out - guests, trading people of the living room and cloth hundreds. This privileged merchant class traded throughout the country and had capital of thousands of rubles, but it was very small: at the end of the 17th century it numbered only 250-300 families. Actually, the townspeople were mostly small artisans and merchants who traded from benches and trays, and the cost of their goods sometimes did not reach one ruble.

After the devastation of the Time of Troubles, the level of development of crafts and industry remained low. The large craft was represented by several dozen tanneries and distilleries. At the salt mines near Salt Kama at the end of the 17th century there were about 200 salt pans, which employed about 4 thousand workers. Manufactories were a rare occurrence; they usually belonged either to the palace household or to foreigners. Dutch entrepreneurs built several blast furnace factories near Tula and Kashira, mainly casting cannons. In the early 1660s, these enterprises employed only 119 permanent workers, including 56 foreigners. Munchaev Sh. M., Ustinov V. V. History of Russia. M., 2000 P. 321

Clan relations among the South African Bantu do not constitute any exception; they are similar to the clan relations of all peoples at this stage of development. Just like other peoples, the Zulu, for example, calls not only his real father father, but also all his brothers; he calls not only his own mother my own mother, but also mother’s sisters, uncles’ wives, etc. All members of the clan have certain rights and are bound by various obligations. When a young man gets married, his relatives help him pay off lobola; when he marries his daughter, he will give some of the lobola he receives to his relatives. He must give them gifts from time to time, and they help him with advice and, if necessary, food. They help him in case of trouble, in building a hut, harvesting crops, etc. Members of each clan have their own holidays and ceremonies.

The clan was exogamous: a man could not marry a girl from his own clan, even if she was a very distant relative of him, he had to marry a girl from another clan. Each clan had its own name, which distinguished it from other clans, the history of its origin, a greeting formula, etc. The Mashon retained the totemic organization of the clan. Each clan had its own totem - an animal with which the clan considered itself to be related and after which the clan received its name. This animal was considered inviolable. For example, people of the antelope clan believed that they were in a state of consanguinity with the antelope, the patroness of the clan; she was not killed and the meat was not eaten. Violation of this rule was supposedly fraught with serious consequences: it was assumed, for example, that if you eat antelope meat, your teeth will fall out. In some clans, they found a way to bypass this rule: if you put a special stone and the bark of a certain tree into the cauldron where antelope meat is cooked, then the meat can be eaten.

Marriage between people who had the same totem was categorically prohibited: it was believed that those getting married would lose the ability to produce offspring. But in a large totemic family this created difficulties in finding a wife. Therefore, totemic clans were split into smaller units that bore different family nicknames and united people descended from one not very distant ancestor. The totem in the Mashona language is called mutupo, and the family nickname is chidawo. A man could marry a woman from another Chidawo, even if she belonged to the same Mutupo.

The Herero clan organization was original. They coexisted maternal and paternal accounts of kinship, two forms of clan organization. Every person by birth belonged to maternal family- an end with whom he did not break ties throughout his life. Each member of the Eand had the right to inherit from his mother's maternal uncle. At the head of the Eanda was the elder brother of the eldest woman of the Eanda. But each Herero also belonged to another organization - the Oruzo; this affiliation was inherited through the male line - from father to son. When a woman got married, she became her husband’s oruzo. At the head of the oruzo was the eldest of the oruzo men, his ancestor and head. A special part of the property was inherited through the Oruzo line. This duality created extremely complex system inheritance. By the time the Europeans arrived, the leading principle of Herero social organization was, of course, patriarchal, but eanda was still a strong, living relic of matriarchy.

However, the clan, as the main unit of the primitive communal system, has long ceased to exist and has broken up into large patriarchal families. Back to top European colonization Only a few, more or less strong, vestiges of the clan organization remained.

The land was still the collective property of the tribes and their subdivisions, but the use of the land was already private. Livestock and tools were the private property of large patriarchal families. They used estates and cultivated land, and they disposed of the products of their labor at their own discretion. It was already a society of small producers, bound by collective ownership of land and common interests of protection from external attacks. There was already property inequality “among ordinary community members: there were rich and poor. There was livestock lending and, therefore, economic dependence of the poor on the rich. The tribal elite exploited their fellow tribesmen and held significant wealth in their hands. Tribal leaders and clan elders were large cattle owners, and caring for their herds fell heavily on ordinary community members. Communists were obliged to cultivate their fields for free, build housing, cattle pens, etc. This was a form of production relations characteristic of the period of transition from relations of cooperation and mutual assistance of people free from exploitation to relations of domination and subordination.

The highest form of social organization was the tribe. Each tribe was independent, but relations of dependence had already appeared, a hierarchy had developed, subordination of tribal leaders. Descriptions of the first European travelers and missionaries (late 18th - early 19th centuries) give us a kaleidoscopic picture of the fragmentation of some tribes, the unification of others and the disappearance of others. Stable forms and the boundaries of the tribes disappeared, an intensive process of mixing of tribes took place.

The settlement of people was still based on the principle of consanguinity: neighbors were relatives. But tribal isolation and tribal endogamy were already becoming a thing of the past. The productive forces had already outgrown the framework of production relations and did not fit within the boundaries of the tribal organization. The destruction of the tribal structure was an expression of the discrepancy between production relations and the nature of the productive forces.

At the head of the tribe was an elected leader. Kept national assembly, which decided the most important issues in the life of the tribe, elected and removed the leader of the tribe. But the circle of candidates was already strictly limited, dynastic families were singled out, and the struggle for the post of leader was reduced to the struggle of his heirs, and the people only had the opportunity to support one of them. "A person who does not belong to ruling dynasty, could be elected leader only in exceptional cases” 1. Engels wrote about this stage of primitive society: “the election of their (tribal leaders. - Author) successors from the same families little by little, especially since the establishment of paternal law, passes into hereditary power, which is first tolerated, then demanded and , finally usurped; the foundations of heredity are laid royal power and hereditary nobility" 2.

Before us is a picture of the primitive communal system in its last phase of development: the tribal structure is still alive, but has already lost its former harmony and stability; private property exists, rich and poor have appeared, but society has not yet split into antagonistic classes; management of public affairs is concentrated in the hands of rich dynastic families, but there is no state apparatus of violence yet. The exception was the Mashona, who already had a state called Monomotapa 3.

Startcolonization

European colonialists appeared in South Africa only in the 17th century, that is, three hundred years ago. Sea route The Portuguese traveled from Europe around Africa: in 1486, 1 Portuguese expedition under the command of Bartolomeu Dias rounded the Cape of Good Hope 2 and reached the mouth of the river. Great Fish. After this, however, another century and a half passed before European settlement in South Africa.

The inhospitable sandy shores of South-West Africa did not attract travelers; The shores of the southern tip of Africa seemed even less attractive: ships constantly crashed near them, and sailors tried to avoid them as quickly as possible. Only the east coast, with its mild climate and rich vegetation, could attract the Portuguese. But this coast was inhabited by warlike Bantu tribes, and the Portuguese were content with short stops to replenish fresh water and food supplies. The main strongholds for the Portuguese were the bays where ships entered on their way to Goa, the center of the Portuguese possessions in India.

With the fall of Portugal's colonial power, its possessions in Southeast Asia passed into the hands of the Dutch. The Dutch East India Company took over the spice trade throughout Indonesia. The Dutch also had to look for convenient bays where their ships could stop on their way to Asia and stock up on food and drinking water. In 1652, a representative of the East India Company, Jan van Riebeeck, with a small group of soldiers, workers and employees of the company landed in a bay near Table Mountain and founded a fortified settlement there, from which the city of Kapstadt, today's Cape Town, later grew, thus marking the beginning of the creation of the Cape Colony.

Five years later (1657), the first group of settlers - free burghers - from Holland arrived in South Africa. In 1698, French Huguenots who fled religious persecution began to move to the new colony; behind them came settlers from Germany, etc. National composition The colonists were quite complex, although the majority of them were still Dutch. The descendants of these first colonists subsequently received the common name - Boers (from the Dutch boer - peasant). Now they prefer to call themselves Afrikaners.

The number of settlers, initially small, a hundred years later, in 1750, amounted to about 5 thousand; by the end of the 18th century. Europeans numbered more than 15 thousand people. As the population of the colony grew, its territory gradually expanded. The newly arriving colonists moved further into the interior of the country, seizing the lands of the Hottentot tribes. The Hottentots tried to resist, but could not resist the colonists, armed firearms. The Dutch exterminated entire tribes, and the surviving Hottentots and Bushmen were turned into slaves.

In 1776, Dutch colonists appeared in the river valley. Great Fish, inhabited by the Bantu tribes - Xhosa. The Xhosa did not represent unity at that time, individual clans fought over the division of pastures, their leaders Ndlambe and Gaika were at enmity with each other. But nevertheless, the Xhosa were able to delay the further advance of the colonists, and R. Great Fish remained the border between the Bantu and the Dutch colony for 40 years.

Slave labor in the Cape Colony was used very widely. Large territory, about 650 thousand km 2, completely cleared of Hottentots and Bushmen, was at the disposal of 15 thousand Europeans. Each colonist was a large landowner. Estates measuring up to 10 thousand hectares have survived to this day. For example, General Botha, a descendant of the first Dutch colonists, owned 12 thousand hectares of land, and this was no exception. Along with the land, the colonists captured from the Hottentots, and then... Xhosa have cattle. Each colonist therefore became a large cattle owner. He was also a slave owner. The colonists' economy was based on the labor of slaves. Due to the mass extermination of the Hottentots in the first period of colonization and the lack of local labor, slaves were imported from Madagascar, East Africa and Malaya. By the beginning of the 19th century. in the colony there were about 30 thousand imported slaves and about 20 thousand Hottentots. The first English missionaries, trying to justify the British conquests in South Africa, collected great material, testifying to the plight of slaves and the tyranny of slave owners in the Cape Colony. The slaves' protests were suppressed with extreme cruelty. The slave-owning practices of that time persist, as we will see later, in a modified form even after the establishment of English rule in modern South Africa.

IN early XIX V. England captured the Cape Colony. At this time, the British were at war with Napoleonic France. French troops won victories over their opponents in Europe, while England gradually captured French colonies in America, Africa and India. When Bonapartist France annexed Holland and, declaring it the Batavian Republic, actually included it in its possessions, England seized the Cape Colony in 1806.

The beginning of colonization.

The discovery of the New World by Europeans led to the conquest in Spanish, conquista conquest, called the last by the Peruvian explorer Mariategui crusade. After the expulsion of the Moors from the Iberian Peninsula, those for whom military armor served as the main source of subsistence were left out of work. But suddenly a fabulous prospect opened up across the ocean, and a world unknown in Europe turned out to be homeless. And reached out to New World yesterday's soldiers, monks, ruined hidalgos.

Those who could not come to terms with religious oppression fled from the Inquisition across the Atlantic; poverty drove there those who only hoped for the favor of fortune. After the discovery of America, tens of thousands of immigrants from England, France, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain and Portugal rushed to the New World. Where convicts were also sent to serve their sentences, children kidnapped from the English slums were also sold here. Participants in the unsuccessful revolutionary battles of the mid-19th century from Germany, Ireland, France, Russia, Austria-Hungary, and Finland also arrived in the United States.

A significant part of the American population were descendants of African slaves. The attention of the conquistadors who went to South America, in the apt expression of the Spanish monk Bartolomé Las Casas, with a cross in hand, but with a thirst for gold in their hearts, was drawn primarily to the densely populated Andean highlands. In addition to the riches of the mythical gold country of Eldorado, they were attracted by the opportunity to take advantage of the achievements of pre-Columbian civilizations.

Hopes and rumors gave rise to more and more new legends about the land of the Amazons, and about unique cities where houses are made of pure silver, and about the source of eternal youth, and, of course, about Eldorado, the land of countless treasures and gilded people. Playing on the contradictions between local rulers, acting by deception, bribery and simply brute force, the conquistadors led by Francisco Pizarro, who first came to Peru in 1527, completely captured the Central Andes in just ten years.

They established encomienda guardianship over the rural communities of the mountainous regions, essentially forcing the Indians to work for themselves, and to extract gold, silver and precious stones They used the compulsory labor service introduced by the Incas. America at that time was a country of robbers, thieves, murderers, different types criminals who poured in in a stream from civilized Europe, which did not accept these scum of society, and the indigenous Indian population. England claimed territory in North America as early as 1497, but only a century later had it accumulated enough material and human resources to establish permanent settlements in the New World. During the 16th century. The population of England and Wales almost doubled, so colonization began to be seen as a panacea for overpopulation and a means of ridding the country of hordes of annoying beggars. In 1607, at the mouth of the James River, which flows into the Chesapeake Bay, the British founded the first city in North America, Jamestown.

At the same time, the first battle took place with the Powhatan Indians who inhabited these lands.

A 200-year period of displacement of Native Americans from their ancestral lands began. Since then, the Aborigines became subjects of the British crown. The British, verbally recognizing the right of the Indians to their own lands, sometimes by cunning and sometimes by force, deprived the majority of the indigenous inhabitants of America of their territories. 3. Population migration. The largest international migrations of recent centuries were associated with the settlement of America by Europeans.

Emigrants from Lat. emigro evicted people who voluntarily or forcedly left one country and settled in another, left Europe and settled mainly in the United States. Other settlers chose Australia, New Zealand, and the Union of South Africa, now South Africa. Canada, Brazil, and Argentina received many immigrants from Latin immigrans. During the period from 1815 to 1900, about 13 million people emigrated from Great Britain, of which 65 went to the USA, 15 to Canada, 11 to Australia, 5 to South America.

Germany occupied second place; between 1841 and 1900, 4.9 million people emigrated from it, mainly to the USA, a smaller part to Brazil and other American countries. Flows of immigrants from Italy, 3.9 million people, from 1876 to 1900 were mostly sent to Argentina, Brazil, and the USA. During the second half of the 19th century. about 1.5 million people emigrated from the Nordic countries. The colonization of America by the Spaniards and Portuguese continued. International population migrations also occurred from Eastern European countries, but their recording was unsatisfactory.

As we see, throughout the entire period of colonization of America, a huge number of people emigrated there from the Old World, trying to find best conditions life. And these people formed multinational states. Depending on the initially predominant composition of migrants, the countries settled by them have a different ethnic appearance. The United States and Canada are English-speaking, in the latter the large French-speaking province of Quebec, the former French colony of Mexico, and many other Spanish-speaking Brazil is Portuguese-speaking.

Among those who emigrated to North America At first, immigrants from Great Britain and Ireland predominated, then the flow of immigrants from Germany and the countries of Northern Europe increased, and later from Eastern Europe, so in Canada there are now many descendants of Ukrainians, Argentina and many other Spanish-speaking Brazil. From the very beginning, the influx of immigrants forced the old-timers of the New World to think about ways to counteract unhindered access new settlers to America.

This was the result of the fact that in 1639 the English colonial authorities prohibited criminals and beggars from moving to the North American colonies. However, this embargo did not have much impact. The first piece of legislation to specifically restrict immigration into the country was passed in 1875. People who had previously committed crimes were prohibited from relocating to the United States. In 1882, a disgraceful law was passed that prohibited ethnic Chinese from moving to the United States. Those Chinese who were already living in the United States at that time were prohibited from applying for American citizenship.

This law was passed due to the influx of Chinese coolie workers, who were considered the cheapest labor force and who were recruited to build the railways. US legislators believed that the presence of the Chinese had a negative impact on the unemployment rate and wages of Native Americans. Only in 1943 this law was repealed. Ironically, ethnic Chinese now constitute one of the largest and most influential communities in the United States. The first immigration law was passed in 1882. It provided for the establishment of control over the quality of immigrants, it was implied that the country needed hardworking specialists, not slackers, and also prohibited the entry of mentally ill and mentally underdeveloped people.

This law also imposed a tax of 50 cents on each arriving immigrant. However, despite the introduction of stricter rules for immigrants' access to the United States and the economic difficulties experienced by the American economy, the influx of immigrants has not decreased much. 4.

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In 1750, there were vast territories in the world that Europeans had not yet visited. At the end of the 18th and throughout the 19th century. many European scientists and travelers set off on long journeys to discover new ones and explore different seas and continents (read the article ““). The discoverers (see article ““) were followed by merchants and settlers, and thus colonies began to be created that were subordinate to the rule of one or another European country and largely depended on it.

From 1768 to 1779, Captain James Cook led three expeditions to Pacific Ocean. He visited various islands, in particular the island of Tahiti, where his ship was met by war canoes (a narrow, long boat) of the natives, Cook landed in Australia and explored its eastern coast. The unusual animals of Australia amazed and interested the scientists and artists participating in the expedition. Captain Cook also sailed around the islands of New Zealand. Members of the Endeavor ship's crew landed on one of the islands, where they first saw its inhabitants - the Maori.

Exploring Africa

In the 19th century there were many expeditions to explore Africa and create maps of it. Travelers along the way admired many beautiful African landscapes, such as Victoria Falls, but misfortunes also awaited them there. Many became infected with diseases unknown to Europeans and died. During their expedition in search of the sources of the Nile River, two Englishmen, Speck and Grant, spent some time as guests of Muteza, the ruler of the state of Buganda, who received them with great cordiality. Some explorers, like Dr. Livingston, were also Christian missionaries (people who came to these colonies and brought with them the teachings of Christ). They opened hospitals and schools for Africans, and also built churches. One of the first Europeans to explore the Sahara Desert was a Frenchman named Rene Caillet, who was also one of the first to see the ancient African city of Timbuktu with his own eyes. Among explorers of distant lands in the 19th century. there were also women. Shown here is Alexandrina Tinne, a wealthy Dutch woman who made a long journey through North Africa and Sudan.

Other expeditions

The brave English traveler Richard Burton, during his trip to Saudi Arabia, disguised himself as an Arab in order to visit the holy Muslim city of Mecca, where access to Europeans was closed at that time. Many travelers have gone missing in the jungles of South Africa, where they went to search for lost ancient cities and make maps. Later, expeditions to the North and South Poles began to be equipped. In 1909, American Robert Peary was the first to reach the area North Pole, and Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen was the first to reach the South Pole (1911).

Colonial takeovers

Europeans sought to acquire new markets for the products produced in their factories. They also needed raw materials for industry, such as cotton or tea leaves. Often European countries sent troops to the lands where their trade missions were established to quell conflicts between local rulers. In addition, officials were sent there to organize the management of this territory. Thus, these lands turned into colonies of various European states.

More and more Europeans went to the colonies with their families to settle there for a long time or permanently. They acquired vast tracts of land and established plantations where local residents worked on them, growing tea, rubber, cotton and various food crops, as well as raising sheep or cattle. Later, when they began to search for and find minerals on the territory of the colonies, they began to build factories, factories and railways, causing even more people from Europe to flock to the colonies. European governments, concerned about population growth in their countries, strongly encouraged their citizens to move to live in the colonies, where they all had enough land and work.