Plan:

• 1 Names of Roman citizens
  • 1.1 Male names
    • 1.1.1 Prenoman
    • 1.1.2 Nomen
    • 1.1.3 Cognomen
    • 1.1.4 Agnomen
  • 1.2 Female names
• 2 Slave names
• 3 Freedmen's names
• 4 See also
Literature

1. Names of Roman citizens

1.1. Male names

In classical times, a full Roman male name usually consisted of three components: a personal name, or praenomen ( praenomen), generic name, or nomen ( nomen), and an individual nickname or name of a branch of the clan, cognomen ( cognomen).

1.1.1. Prenoman

The personal name was similar to the modern male name. The Romans used a small number of personal names (18 names out of a total of 72); as a rule they were so ancient origin that in the classical era the significance of most of them was forgotten. In inscriptions, personal names were almost always written abbreviated (1-3 letters).

Other personal names were rarely used and were usually written in full: Agrippa, Ancus, Annius, Aruns, Atta, Cossus, Denter, Eppius, Faustus, Fertor, Herius, Hospolis, Hostus, Lar, Marius, Mesius, Mettus, Minatius, Minius, Nero, Novius, Numa, Opiter, Opiavus, Ovius, Pacvius (Paquius), Paullus, Pescennius (Percennius), Petro, Plancus, Plautus, Pompo, Popidius, Postumus, Primus, Proculus, Retus, Salvius, Secundus, Sertor, Statius, Servius, Tertius, Tirrus, Trebius, Tullus, Turus, Volero, Volusus, Vopiscus. Personal name Pupus(boy) was used only in relation to children.

The boy received a personal name on the eighth or ninth day after birth. There was a tradition of giving a personal name to only the four eldest sons, and the rest could be given ordinal numbers as a personal name: Quintus(fifth, cf. Old Russian. Pyatak), Sextus(sixth, cf. Old Russian. Shestak), Septimus (seventh, cf. Old Russian. Semak), Octavius ​​(eighth, cf. Old Russian. Osmak), and Decimus (tenth). Over time, these names became commonly used (that is, they turned into personal names), and as a result, a person bearing the name Sextus was not necessarily the sixth son in the family. As an example, we can recall the commander Sextus Pompey, the second son of a member of the first triumvirate, Gnaeus Pompey the Great, who fought for a long time with Julius Caesar.

Often the eldest son received his father's praenomen. In 230 BC e. this tradition was consolidated by a decree of the Senate, so that the father’s personal name began, as a rule, to pass to the eldest son. For example, Emperor Octavian Augustus, like his great-great-grandfather, great-grandfather, grandfather and father, bore the name Gaius.

In some clans a limited number of personal names were used. For example, the Cornelius Scipios had only Gnaeus, Lucius and Publius, the Claudius Nero had only Tiberius and Decimus, the Domitius Ahenobarbi had only Gnaeus and Lucius.

The criminal's personal name could be forever excluded from the family to which he belonged; for this reason, in the patrician family of the Claudii the name Lucius was not used, and in the patrician family of the Manliev the name Mark was not used. By decree of the Senate, the name Mark was forever excluded from the Antony family after the fall of the triumvir Mark Antony.

1.1.2. Nomen

and List of plebeian clans Ancient Rome.

The generic name was the name of the clan and corresponded approximately to the modern surname. It was indicated in the form of a masculine adjective and ended in the classical era with -ius: Tullius- Tullius (from the Tully family), Julius- Julius (from the Julius family); in republican time there are also endings -is, -i. Generic names of non-Roman origin had endings different from those named.

In inscriptions, family names are usually written in full; During imperial times, only the names of very famous families were abbreviated: Aelius - Ael., Antonius - Ant. or Anton., Aurelius - Avr., Claudius - Cl. or Clavd., Flavius - Fl. or Fla., Julius - I. or Ivl., Pompeius - Pomp., Valerius - Val., Ulpius - Vlp.

The total number of generic names, according to Varro, reached a thousand. Most family names are of such ancient origin that their meaning has been forgotten. Only a few make sense: Asinius from asinus(donkey), Caelius from caecus(blind), Caninius from canis(dog), Decius from decem(ten), Fabius from faba(bean), Nonius from nonus(ninth), Octavius from octavus(eighth), Ovidius from ovis(sheep), Porcius from porca(pig), Septimius from septimus(seventh), Sextius And Sextilius from sextus(sixth), Suillius from suilla(pork).

From the 1st century BC e., when the prerequisites for the transition from a republican form of government to autocracy appeared in Rome, those who seized supreme power began to justify their rights to power by their descent from ancient kings and heroes. Julius Caesar, for example, indicated that his paternal family goes back to the gods: Jupiter - Venus - Aeneas - Yul - the Julius family, and through his mother to the kings: from Ancus Marcius descended the Marcii Rexes (lat. rex- tsar).

1.1.3. Cognomen

An individual nickname, once given to one of the representatives of the clan, was often passed on to descendants and became the name of a family or a separate branch of the clan: Cicero- Cicero, Caesar- Caesar. For example, the families of the Scipios, Rufini, Lentuli, etc. belonged to the Cornelian clan. The presence of a cognomen is not necessary, and in some plebeian clans (Marii, Antoniev, Octavian, Sertorian, etc.) personal nicknames, as a rule, were absent. However, the absence of a cognomen was an exception to the rule, since many of the families of Rome were of such ancient origin that each of them had several branches.

Since the father's personal name passed on to the eldest son, in order to distinguish the son from the father, it was necessary to use a third name. The inscriptions include Lucius Sergius the First, Quintus Aemilius the Second; in one inscription the grandfather, son and grandson are named Quintus Fulvius Rusticus, Quintus Fulvius Attianus and Quintus Fulvius Carisianus.

Cognomen arose much later than personal and generic names, so their meaning is clear in most cases. They can talk about the origin of the family (the Fufis moved to Rome from the Campanian town of Cales and therefore had a cognomen Calenus), about memorable events (a cognomen appeared in the plebeian family of Mutsiev Scaevola(left-handed) after 508 BC. e. during the war with the Etruscans, Gaius Mucius burned his hand on the fire of a brazier, which made his enemies and their king Porsenna tremble), about appearance ( Crassus- thick, Laetus- obese, Macer- thin, Celsus- high, Paullus- short, Rufus- ginger, Strabo- cross-eyed, Nasica- sharp-nosed, etc.), about character ( Severus- cruel, Probus- honest, Lucro- glutton, etc.).

1.1.4. Agnomen

There were cases when one person had two nicknames, the second of which was called agnomen (lat. agnomen). The appearance of the agnomen is partly due to the fact that the eldest son often inherited all three of his father’s names, and thus there were several people with the same names in one family. For example, the famous orator Marcus Tullius Cicero's father and son were also Marcus Tullius Cicero.

Agnomen was most often a personal nickname if the cognomen was hereditary. Sometimes a Roman received an agnomen for some special merit. Publius Cornelius Scipio in honor of the victory he won over Hannibal in Africa in 202 BC. e., began to be called solemnly African (lat. Africanus, Wed nicknames of Russian commanders - Alexander Nevsky, Dmitry Donskoy, Suvorov-Rymniksky, Potemkin-Tavrichesky). Lucius Aemilius Paullus got a nickname Macedonicus for the victory over the Macedonian king Perseus in 168 BC. e. The dictator Sulla himself added agnomen to his name Felix(happy), so his full name became Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix. Agnomen Felix turned from a personal nickname into a hereditary one (consul 52 AD. Faustus Cornelius Sulla Felix).

As a rule, members of ancient and noble families, numbering many branches and cognomen, had agnomen. In such genera, the cognomen sometimes almost merged with the generic name and was used inseparably with it to name the genus. The famous plebeian family of the Caecilians ( Caecilii) had an ancient cognomen Metellus, whose meaning has been forgotten. This cognomen seemed to merge with the name of the genus, which became known as Caecilia Metella. Naturally, almost all members of this family had an agnomen.

The patrician family of Cornelii had many branches. One of the members of this clan received the nickname Scipio(rod, stick), because he was the guide of his blind father and served him, as it were, instead of a staff. Cognomen Scipio secured to his descendants, over time the Cornelia Scipios took a prominent place in their family and received agnomens. In the 3rd century BC. e. Gnaeus Cornelius Scipio received the agnomen Asina(donkey) for bringing a donkey loaded with gold to the Forum as collateral. The nickname Asina passed to his son Publius ( Publius Cornelius Scipio Asina). Another representative of the Cornelian Scipios received the nickname Nasica(sharp-nosed), which passed on to his descendants and began to serve as the name of the branch of the clan, so that in the Cornelian family, the Scipios Nazis stood out from the Scipioni branch. Naturally, the Scipios Nazis received a third cognomen as an individual nickname, so that the full name could already consist of five names: Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica Serapio, consul 138 BC e.; nickname Serapio(from the Egyptian god Serapis) was given to him by the people's tribune Curiatius for his resemblance to a merchant of sacrificial animals.

Some people had two family names; this was the result of adoption. According to Roman customs, the adopted person took the personal name, family name and cognomen of the one who adopted him, and retained his family name in a modified form with the suffix -an-, which took the place of the agnomen. Gaius Octavius, the future emperor Augustus, after his adoption by Gaius Julius Caesar received the name Gaius Julius Caesar Octavianus- Gaius Julius Caesar Octavian.

1.2. Female names

In late republican and imperial times, women did not have personal names; a woman’s name was female uniform family name: Tullia- Tullia (from the Tullian family, for example, daughter of Marcus Tullius Cicero), Julia- Julia (from the Julius family, for example, daughter of Gaius Julius Caesar), Cornelia- Cornelia (from the Cornelian family, for example, the daughter of Publius Cornelius Scipio). Since all women in one clan had the same name, within the clan they differed in age. When another daughter appeared in the family, a prenomen was added to the name of both: Minor(younger) and Major(senior); other sisters were nicknamed Secunda(second), Tertia(third), Quintilla(fifth), etc.; prenomen Minor was with the youngest.

A married woman kept her name, but her husband's cognomen was added to it: Cornelia, filia Cornelii, Gracchi- Cornelia, daughter of Cornelia, (wife) of Gracchus.

Noble women could bear, in addition to the family name, the cognomen of their father; for example, Sulla's wife was the daughter of Lucius Caecilius Metella Dalmatica and was called Caecilia Metella, the wife of Emperor Augustus was the daughter of Marcus Livius Drusus Claudian and was called Livia Drusilla.

In the inscriptions with the names of women, the praenomen and cognomen of the father are sometimes indicated, as well as the cognomen of the husband in the clan. case: Caeciliae, Q(uinti) Cretici f(iliae), Metellae, Crassi (uxori)- Caecilia Metella, daughter of Quintus Creticus, (wife) of Crassus. From the inscription it follows that this woman was the daughter of Quintus Caecilius Metellus Creticus and the wife of Crassus. The inscription was made on a large round mausoleum near Rome on the Appian Way, in which Caecilia Metella, daughter of the consul of 69 BC, was buried. e., wife of Crassus, presumably the eldest son of the triumvir Marcus Licinius Crassus.

2. Names of slaves

IN ancient times slaves did not have individual names. Legally, slaves were considered the master’s children (more precisely, slaves were not a subject of law, but an object of law, that is, they were the master’s thing) and were just as powerless as all members of the family. This is how archaic slave names were formed, composed of the personal name of the master, the father of the surname, and the word puer(boy, son): Gaipor, Lucipor, Marcipor, Publipor, Quintipor, Naepor (Gnaeus = Naeos + puer), Olipor (Olos- archaic form of personal name Aulus).

With the rise of slavery, the need for personal names for slaves arose. Most often, slaves retained the name they bore when they still lived as free people. Very often, Roman slaves had names of Greek origin: Alexander, Antigonus, Hippocrates, Diadumen, Museum, Felodespot, Philocalus, Philonicus, Eros, etc. Greek names sometimes given to barbarian slaves.

A slave's name could indicate his origin or place of birth: Dacus- Dacian, Corinthus- Corinthian, Sir (native of Syria), Gall (native of Gaul), Phrixus (from Phrygia); found in the inscriptions are slaves with the name Peregrinus- foreigner.

Slaves were also given the names of mythical heroes: Achilles, Hector; names of plants or stones: Adamant, Sardonicus, etc. Instead of a name, a slave could have the nickname “First”, “Second”, “Third”.

It is known that the slave lot in Rome was very difficult, but this did not in any way affect the names of slaves who do not have mocking nicknames. On the contrary, slaves have names Felix And Faustus(happy). Obviously, these nicknames, which became names, were received only by those slaves whose lives were relatively successful. The inscriptions mention: Faustus, the baker of Tiberius Germanicus, and Faustus, the manager of the perfume shop of his master Popilius, Felix, who was in charge of the jewelry of Gaius Caesar, another Felix, the manager of the estates of Tiberius Caesar, and another Felix, an overseer in the wool weaving workshops of Messalina; the daughters of one slave from the house of Caesars were called Fortunata and Felitsa.

The name is often found among slaves Ingenus or Ingenuus(freeborn). Slaves born into slavery have names Vitalio And Vitalis(tenacious).

There were no hard and fast rules regarding slave names. Therefore, when buying a slave in an official document, his name was accompanied by the clause “or by whatever other name he may be called” (lat. sive is quo alio nomine est).

In the inscriptions after the name of the slave, the name of the master in the genitive case and the nature of the slave’s occupation are indicated. After the master's name there is the word servus(slave) is always abbreviated ser, very rarely s, it can also stand between two cognomen of the master; There is no strict word order at all. The word "slave" is often completely absent; as a rule, slaves owned by women do not have it. For example, Euticus, Aug(usti) ser(vus), pictor- Eutycus, slave of Augustus (imperial slave), painter, Eros, cocus Posidippi, ser(vus)- Eros, cook, slave of Posidippus, Idaeus, Valeriae Messalin(ae) supra argentum- Ideas, treasurer of Valeria Messalina.

A sold slave retained the family name or cognomen of his former master in a modified form with a suffix -an-: Philargyrus librarius Catullianus- Philargir, scribe purchased from Catullus.

3. Names of freedmen

A freedman (i.e., a slave who received freedom) acquired the personal and family names of the former master, who became his patron, and retained his former name as a cognomen. Thus, Cicero’s secretary Tyrone, freed from slavery, was called: M. Tullius M. libertus Tiro- Marcus Tullius, freedman of Marcus Tiron. A slave named Apella, set free by Marcus Manneus Primus, became known as Marcus Manneus Apella. The slave Bassa, freed by Lucius Hostilius Pamphilus, received the name Hostilius Bassa (women did not have a name). Lucius Cornelius Sulla freed ten thousand slaves who belonged to persons who died during the proscriptions; they all became Lucius Cornelius (the famous “army” of ten thousand Cornelii).

The names of imperial freedmen are often found in the inscriptions: the baker Gaius Julius Eros, the tailor of theatrical costumes Tiberius Claudius Dipterus, the man in charge of the triumphal white clothes of the emperor Marcus Cocceus Ambrosius, the man in charge of the hunting clothes of the emperor Marcus Ulpius Euphrosynus, the man in charge of the reception of the emperor's friends Marcus Aurelius Success, etc.

In the inscriptions between the nomen and cognomen of the freedman, the personal name of the master is abbreviated and stands l or lib (= libertus), very rarely the tribe is indicated: Q(uintus) Serto, Q(uinti) l(ibertus), Antiochus, colonus pauper- Quintus Sertorius Antiochus, freedman of Quintus, poor colon. In rare cases, instead of the personal name of the former master, his cognomen appears: L(ucius) Nerfinius, Potiti l(ibertus), Primus, lardarius- Lucius Nerfinius Primus, freedman of Potitus, sausage maker. Freedmen of the imperial house are abbreviated in inscriptions Avg l (Avg lib), i.e. Augusti libertus(after the generic name or after the cognomen): L(ucio) Aurelio, Aug(usti) lib(erto), Pyladi, pantomimo temporis sui primo- Lucius Aurelius Pylades, imperial freedman, the first pantomime of his time.

It is rare to find freedmen with two cognomen: P(ublius) Decimius, P(ublii) l(ibertus), Eros Merula, medicus clinicus, chirurgus, ocularius- Publius Decimius Eros Merula, freedman of Publius, general practitioner, surgeon, ophthalmologist.

Female freedmen in inscriptions are designated by the abbreviation ƆL(the inverted letter C represents a remnant of an archaic female personal name Gaia): L(ucius) Crassicius, Ɔ (= mulieris) l(ibertus), Hermia, medicus veterinarius- Lucius Crassicius Hermia, female freedman, veterinarian.

Freedmen of cities received the name Publicius(from publicus- public) or city name: Aulus Publicius Germanus, Lucius Saepinius Oriens et Lucius Saepinius Orestus- freedmen of the city of Sepina in Italy.

Doctors, servants of the deity Aesculapius (Greek: Asclepius), usually bore his name. For example, Gaius Calpurnius Asclepiades is a doctor from Prusa near Olympus, who received Roman citizenship from Emperor Trajan. However, the name Asclepius, or Asklepiades, did not always belong to the doctor: in one inscription Asklepiades, a slave of Caesar, a marble maker, appears.

Freedmen of the corporations retained their names in their name: freedmen of the corporation of quilters and tailors ( fabri centonarii,

In Ancient Rome, the attitude towards names was more than serious. There was even a saying: “Names are not to be made public.” Therefore, the Roman priests avoided pronouncing the names of the patron gods of Rome - enemies would recognize these names and lure the gods to themselves. And slaves did not have the right to tell the name of their master to a stranger.

Roman male names.

Difficult history of the origin of Roman names took shape over centuries and had a clear structure. A full male name consisted of three components - a personal name (prenomen), a generic name (nomen) and an individual nickname or name of a branch of the clan (cognomen). Personal Roman names there were few, and they were ancient meaning in the classical era it was already forgotten. The eldest son, as a rule, received his father's name. Some clans had a limited number of such names. For example, the Cornelius Scipios had only Gnaeus, Lucius and Publius, and the Claudius Nero had only Tiberius and Decimus. If any member of the clan violated the law, then his name was forever excluded from the clan memory. For this reason, the name Lucius was not found in the Claudian family, and in the Manlian family, boys were not called by the name Mark.

All members of the same clan had one common generic name. The interpretation of these names has long been forgotten; only a few have reached us Roman generic names With famous meaning - Octavius ​​(eighth), Ovidius (sheep), Fabius (bean), Asinius (donkey).

The third individual name (cognomen) was optional for plebeian clans. It was the nickname of the founder of the branch of the family, which passed on to his descendants. The cognomen spoke about the origin of the clan and significant events. But most often they named the distinctive features of their first carrier - Krasus (fat), Paullus (short), Rufus (red-haired), Probus (honest).

Women's names.

It's interesting that personal names in ancient Rome were assigned only to men; women were given only nicknames or a modified family name. A girl born into the Yuli family was named Yulia, and in the Cornelian family - Cornelia. Naturally, in the same family female names were repeated. To avoid confusion, representatives of the same family differed in age - Yulia Mayor (eldest), Yulia Sekunda (second), Yulia Minor (younger). Patrician women added the name of their father or husband to their name - Cecilia Metella (daughter of Metella).

Slave names.

Roman slaves bore the names that they had as free people. Most often these were Greek names - Alexander, Antigonus, Museum, Philocalus, Eros. Greek names were also given to barbarian slaves. Sometimes the name of a slave meant his place of birth - Dacus (Dacian), Corinthus (Corinthian). It happened that instead of a name, slaves were simply assigned a serial number - First, Second. However, Roman slaves did not have derogatory nicknames. On the contrary, there were such names as Faustus (happy), Fortuna (luck). Once released, the slave received the name of his master. For example, the freedman Apella, the slave of the master Marcus Manneus Prima, began to be called Marcus Manneus Apella.

Prepared by Irina Borovikova, a student of grade 10 “b,” Presentation on the topic: “The Holy Roman Empire”

The idea of ​​an empire, a single state uniting the entire civilized and Christian world, dating back to the times of Ancient Rome and experiencing a rebirth under Charlemagne, persisted even after the collapse of the Frankish Carolingian Empire. The Empire in the public consciousness was presented as the earthly embodiment of the Kingdom of God, best model organization of the state, in which the ruler maintains peace and tranquility in Christian countries, protects and takes care of the prosperity of the church, and also organizes protection from external threats. The early medieval concept of empire assumed the unity of state and church and close interaction between the emperor and the pope, who exercised supreme secular and spiritual power. Although the capital of Charlemagne's empire was Aachen, the imperial idea was associated primarily with Rome, the center of Western Christianity and, according to the Donation of Constantine, the source political power throughout Europe. Story…

After the collapse of the state of Charlemagne in the middle of the 9th century, the title of emperor was preserved, but the real power of its bearer was limited only to Italy, with the exception of several cases of short-term unification of all Frankish kingdoms. The last Roman emperor, Berengar of Friuli, died in 924. After his death, power over Italy was disputed for several decades by representatives of a number of aristocratic families in Northern Italy and Burgundy. In Rome itself, the papal throne came under the complete control of the local patriciate. The source of the revival of the imperial idea in the middle of the 10th century was the East Frankish Kingdom, the future Germany.

February 2, 962... In 961, Pope John XII turned to Otto with a request for protection against the king of Italy Berengar II of Israel and promised him the imperial crown. Otto immediately crossed the Alps, defeated Berengar and was recognized as king of the Lombards (Italy), and then marched to Rome. On February 2, 962, Otto I was anointed king and crowned emperor. This date is considered the date of formation of the Holy Roman Empire. Although Otto the Great himself obviously did not intend to found a new empire and saw himself solely as the successor of Charlemagne, in fact the transfer of the imperial crown to the German monarchs meant the final separation of the East Frankish kingdom (Germany) from the West Frankish one (France) and the formation of a new public education based on German and Northern Italian territories, acting as the heir of the Roman Empire and claiming to be the patron of the Christian church.

Otto I Great Coat of Arms of the Holy Roman Empire

Territory…

The imperial title did not give the kings of Germany much additional powers, although theoretically they stood above all the royal houses of Europe. The emperors ruled in Germany using already existing administrative mechanisms, and interfered very little with the affairs of their feudal vassals in Italy, where their main support was the bishops of the Lombard cities. Beginning in 1046, Emperor Henry III received the right to appoint popes, just as he had control over the appointment of bishops in the German church. He used his power to introduce in Rome the ideas of church government in accordance with the principles of canon law (the so-called Cluny Reform), which were developed in the area that lay on the border between France and Germany. After Henry's death, the papacy turned the principle of the freedom of the "divine state" against the authority of the emperor in matters of church government. Pope Gregory VII affirmed the principle of the superiority of spiritual over temporal power and, in what became known in history as the “Struggle for Investiture,” which lasted from 1075 to 1122, began an attack on the emperor’s right to appoint bishops. German emperors...

Henry III Pope Gregory VII

Hohenstaufen on the imperial throne. The compromise reached in 1122 did not lead to final clarity on the question of supremacy in the state and church, and under Frederick I Barbarossa, the first Hohenstaufen emperor, who took the throne 30 years later, the struggle between the papacy and the empire flared up again, although in concrete terms the reason for it was now disagreements about the ownership of Italian lands. Under Frederick, the word “Sacred” was added to the words “Roman Empire” for the first time, indicating a belief in the sanctity of the secular state; this concept was further substantiated during the revival of Roman law and the revival of contacts with the Byzantine Empire. This was the period of the highest prestige and power of the empire. Frederick and his successors centralized the system of government in the territories they owned, conquered Italian cities, established feudal suzerainty over states outside the empire, and, as the Germans advanced eastward, extended their influence in this direction as well. In 1194, the Kingdom of Sicily passed to the Hohenstaufens - through Constance, the daughter of King Roger II of Sicily and the wife of Emperor Henry VI, which led to the complete encirclement of the papal possessions by the lands of the Holy Roman Empire.

Frederick I Barbarossa Roger II Henry VI

The power of the empire was weakened by the civil war that broke out between the Welfs and the Hohenstaufens after the premature death of Henry in 1197. Under Innocent III, the papal throne dominated Europe until 1216, even insisting on its right to resolve disputes between claimants to the imperial throne. After the death of Innocent, Frederick II returned the imperial crown to its former greatness, but was forced to leave the German princes to do whatever they wanted in their inheritance: having abandoned supremacy in Germany, he focused all his attention on Italy in order to strengthen his position in the struggle here with the papal throne and the cities that were under the rule of the Guelphs. Shortly after Frederick's death in 1250, the papacy, with the help of the French, finally defeated the Hohenstaufens. The decline of the empire can be seen at least in the fact that in the period from 1250 to 1312 there were no coronations of emperors. Nevertheless, the empire existed in one form or another for more than five centuries - thanks to its connection with the German royal throne and the vitality of the imperial tradition. Despite constantly renewed attempts French kings gain imperial dignity, the emperor's crown invariably remained in German hands, and attempts by Pope Boniface VIII to downgrade the status of imperial power sparked a movement in its defense. Decline of the Empire...

Innocent III Frederick II Boniface VIII

However, the glory of the empire remained largely in the past, and despite the efforts of Dante and Petrarch, representatives of the mature Renaissance turned away from the obsolete ideals of which it was the embodiment. The sovereignty of the empire was now limited to Germany alone, since Italy and Burgundy fell from it, and it received a new name - the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. The last ties with the papal throne were interrupted towards the end of the 15th century, when German kings made it a rule to accept the title of emperor without going to Rome to receive the crown from the hands of the pope. In Germany itself, the power of the princes increased, which occurred at the expense of the rights of the emperor. Beginning in 1263, the principles of election to the German throne were sufficiently defined, and in 1356 they were enshrined in the Golden Bull of Emperor Charles IV (fig). The seven electors used their influence to make demands on the emperors, which greatly weakened the central government. Decline of the Empire...

Beginning in 1438, the imperial crown was in the hands of the Austrian Habsburgs, who, following the general trend characteristic of Germany, sacrificed national interests in the name of the greatness of the dynasty. In 1519, King Charles I of Spain was elected Holy Roman Emperor under the name Charles V, uniting Germany, Spain, the Netherlands, the Kingdom of Sicily and Sardinia under his rule. In 1556, Charles abdicated the throne, after which the Spanish crown passed to his son Philip II. Charles's successor as Holy Roman Emperor was his brother Ferdinand I. Throughout the 15th century. the princes tried unsuccessfully to strengthen the role of the imperial Reichstag (which represented the electors, lesser princes and imperial cities) at the expense of the emperor. Occurred in the 16th century. The Reformation destroyed all hopes of rebuilding the old empire, since it brought into being secularized states and began religious strife. The power of the emperor became decorative, the meetings of the Reichstag turned into congresses of diplomats busy with trifles, and the empire degenerated into a loose union of many small principalities and independent states. On August 6, 1806, the last Holy Roman Emperor, Franz II, who had already become Emperor of Austria Franz I in 1804, renounced his crown and thereby put an end to the existence of the empire. By this time, Napoleon had already proclaimed himself the true successor of Charlemagne, and political changes in Germany deprived the empire of its last support. Habsburg Emperors...

Charles V Franz II Ferdinand I Philip II

Many Greek statues have not reached us, but have been preserved in Roman copies, such as the famous sculpture of Myron “Discobolus”

Venus de Milo (2nd century BC)

Venus (Aphrodite) de Milo is perhaps the most famous ancient statue.

Great Ancient Greek Sculptors

there were no Greek sculptors, e.). Or they didn't survive; except for the supposed self-portrait of Phidias, on the shield of the statue of Athena in the Parthenon. The sculptor depicted himself in the image of Daedalus.

"Normal childhood of humanity"

And why should not the childhood of human society, where it has developed most beautifully, have eternal charm for us, like a never-repeating stage? There are ill-mannered children and senile smart children. Many of the ancient peoples belong to this category. The Greeks were normal children.

Karl Marx

Periodization of the history of Ancient Rome.

1. Tsarist period. (754 or 753 - 510 or 509 BC).

2.Republic. (509 - 30 or 27 BC). A) Early Republic(509 -287 BC). b) Middle Republic (287-133 BC).

c) Late Republic (133 - 30 or 27 BC).

3. Empire (30 or 27 BC - 476 AD). a) Principate (30 or 27 BC - 192 AD). b) Crisis (192-284 AD).

c) Dominat (284-476 AD).

Octavian Augustus. I century BC Vatican Museum

Two civilizations

As for the ancient Romans, their art was imitative. The Romans themselves understood this. And they gave cultural priority to the Greeks. The attitude of the Romans towards the Greeks was ambivalent. On the one hand, as victors, they despised the vanquished, calling the Hellenes with the word “greculi” (buckwheat). On the other hand, they treated the Greeks as their teachers in the field of culture, the level of which they did not hope to reach.

Roman attitude towards Greece

Greece, taken captive, captivated the savage victors In Latium brought stern art.

Horace "Epistle"

Rome's attitude towards itself

Others will be able to create living sculptures from bronze, Or better reproduce the appearance of husbands in marble, Better to conduct litigation and more skillfully calculate the movements of the sky or name the rising stars, I don’t argue:

Roman! You learn to rule peoples in a sovereign way - This is your art! - impose peace terms,

Show mercy to the humble and humble the arrogant through war.

Virgil "Aeneid"

The nature of Roman civilization

Roman civilization was more technocratic than humanitarian, and the Romans themselves were great rationalists. But despite the fact that the Romans themselves recognized the Greeks as their teachers, they created their own great civilization, and in some cases managed to surpass their teachers.

Primary education in Rome

In Rome educational institutions, or schools (scholae) for the joint education of boys and girls, were known from the 3rd century. BC

Children went through the five-year primary school (from 7 to 12 years old) under the guidance of a writer, who taught them (like a grammarian in Greece) reading, writing and arithmetic. Sometimes a special teacher called a “calculator” taught arithmetic.

The strictest discipline reigned at school. Corporal punishment was also used.

The school year began in March. There were many religious and public holidays, so the children had time to take a break from classes.

There were no classes in the summer: from about

the end of July, when Sirius rose, the most School in Ancient Rome bright star in the constellation Canis Major

(Canis Major), the “vacations” (caniculares) were approaching, that is, “doggie days,” the hottest of the year. This is where our word “vacation” comes from.

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Romulus

Romulus (753 - 717 BC) The legendary founder of the city he named in his honor (Romulus - “little Rome”).

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Romulus

Founded Rome, repenting of the murder of his brother. At first, Romulus's main concern was increasing the population of the city. To this end, he granted the newcomers the same rights, freedoms, and citizenship as the original settlers. For them he set aside the lands of Capitol Hill. Thanks to this, fugitive slaves, exiles and simply adventurers from other cities and countries began to flock to the city. Rome did not have enough female population, so the Romans stole women from themselves at the festival of the Consulia.

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Romulus

According to ancient Roman legends, he disappeared without a trace on July 5, 717 BC. during a thunderstorm - it was believed that he ascended to heaven and became the god of war Quirin. In fact, he was most likely killed. By the end of his reign, the territory of Rome no longer included only the Palatine, but also the Quirinal and Capitol Hills

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Caesar

Gaius Julius Caesar (lat. Gaius Iulius Caesar [ˈgaːjʊs ˈjuːljʊs ˈkae̯sar]; July 12 or 13, 100 BC - March 15, 44 BC) - ancient Roman statesman and political figure, dictator [comment. 1], commander, writer.

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Caesar's conquests

With his conquest of Gaul, Caesar expanded the Roman power to the shores of the North Atlantic and brought the territory of modern France under Roman influence, and also launched an invasion of the British Isles. Caesar's activities radically changed the cultural and political landscape Western Europe and left an indelible mark on the lives of subsequent generations of Europeans.

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Caesar's conquests

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Caesar

Caesar wanted to centralize the government of the republic. Evil tongues said that he was striving for royal power. However, Caesar, remembering the unsuccessful practice of the reign of the first seven kings, took a different path: he became a dictator for life. He insisted on being called simply Caesar. His murder led to the resumption of civil wars, the decline of the Roman Republic and the birth of the Empire, led by Octavian Augustus, his son. Later, many monarchs wanted to associate themselves with the legendary Caesar. This is how it happened. Kaiser (“Kaiser”), as well as the Russian concept “tsar”, which is a term cognate word"Caesar".

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Nero

Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus December 15, 37 - June 9, 68, birth name - Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus from 50 to 54 - Nero Claudius Caesar Drusus Germanicus, best known under the name Nero, - Roman emperor from October 13, 54, last of the Julius dynasty -Klavdiev.

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Nero

In foreign policy Nero limited himself to strengthening the borders previously conquered during the times of Caligula and Claudius. The only war that occurred during Nero's reign was the war between Rome and Parthia in 58-63. It flared up over Armenia, a buffer state between two empires. This war made Nero very popular in the eastern provinces. And the terms of peace with the Parthians were observed for more than 50 years - until Trajan invaded Armenia in 114.

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Fire in Rome

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Fire in Rome

On the night of July 19, 64, one of the largest fires in the history of Rome occurred. The fire spread from shops located on the south-eastern side of the Circus Maximus. By morning, most of the city was engulfed in flames. Nero left Rome for Antium a few days before the fire began. Suetonius says that the initiator of the fire was Nero himself, and that arsonists with torches were seen in the courtyards. According to legends, when the emperor was informed about the fire, he rode towards Rome and observed the fire from a safe distance. At the same time, Nero was dressed in a theatrical costume, played the lyre and recited a poem about the death of Troy.

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Fire in Rome

The fire raged for five days. After its completion, it turned out that out of the fourteen districts of the city, only four survived. Three were destroyed to the ground, in the other seven only insignificant remains of collapsed and half-burned buildings remained (according to descriptions in the Annals of Tacitus, book XV, chapters 38 - 44). Nero opened his palaces to those left homeless, and also did everything necessary to ensure the city's food supply and avoid starvation among the survivors. Most likely, Nero had nothing to do with the fire, but it was necessary to find the culprits - they were Christians. A few days after the fire, Christians were accused of setting the city on fire. A wave of pogroms and executions swept across Rome.

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Nero

After the discovery of Piso's conspiracy, Nero became suspicious and withdrew even more from governing the state, assigning these responsibilities to his temporary workers. Nero himself focused on poetry and sports, taking part in various related competitions and competitions. Yes, he participated in Olympic Games 67, driving ten horses harnessed to a chariot.

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