" is of Greek origin and is translated as "countername".

Antonyms are words with opposite meanings that express it using paradigmatic connections.

Antonyms are a very interesting phenomenon of language, because... in the human mind are stored in the form of an antonymous pair.

Despite the fact that antonyms are opposed to each other with all their content, their semantic structure is highest degree homogeneous. As a rule, antonyms differ in one differential feature.

For example, a pair of antonyms “-” has common semantic features (quality, mood) and only one differential one (positive and negative mood).

Due to the homogeneity of the semantic structure, antonyms have almost completely identical combinability.

Types of antonyms

There are 2 types of antonyms:

1) multi-rooted and single-rooted.

Single-root antonyms usually form unprefixed and prefixed words. Examples: friend - foe; bad - not bad; enter - exit; approach - move away.

Antonyms with different roots are completely different in their appearance. Examples: stale - fresh; life is death.

2) gradual, non-gradual and vector antonyms.

Gradual antonyms express opposition, which presupposes the existence of intermediate stages between two extreme points. Examples: brilliant - talented - gifted - average abilities - mediocre - mediocre; - capable - intelligent - intelligent - average abilities - stupid - limited - stupid - stupid.

Non-gradual antonyms name concepts between which there is not and cannot be an intermediate degree. Examples: true - false; alive - dead; free - busy; married - single.

Vector antonyms denote the opposite direction of actions, signs, qualities and properties. Examples: forget - remember; increase - decrease; supporter - opponent.

Classification according to the belonging of antonyms to a certain range of concepts

Semantic classification of antonyms

Structural classification of antonyms

Types of Antonyms

In Russian they are considered different types classifications of antonyms:

1) according to their structure (structural classification);

2) by type of opposition (semantic classification);

3) according to the belonging of antonyms to a certain range of concepts.

This classification is based on the word-formative connections of words. From the point of view of structural classification, the following main types of antonyms can be distinguished:

1) Multi-rooted .

This type of antonyms is the most representative. Opposite meanings belong to these words in general (for example, high - low, hot - cold, catching up - falling behind, etc.). Some prepositions are also contrasted as antonyms (for example, for and in front (behind the closet - in front of the closet), in and out (into the room - from the room).

2) Single-rooted.

For them, the meaning of the opposite is expressed not by the root parts of words, but by affixal morphemes. Antonymy arises from the opposition of prefixes (for example, at- and u- (come - go), v- and s- (get in - get off), or as a result of the use of negative prefixes that give the word the opposite meaning (for example, literate - illiterate, tasty - tasteless, military - anti-war, revolution - counter-revolution, etc.).

3) Enantiosemy - opposite meaning of the same word.

Sometimes antonyms may not be individual words, and different meanings of one word (for example, the word priceless, meaning 1. having a very high price ( priceless treasures). 2. having no value (bought for next to nothing, i.e. very cheap ). Word blissful, meaning1. extremely happy ( blissful state). 2. stupid (earlier meaning holy fool).

How do such contradictions arise within the same word?

Most often, as a result of using the word in different areas language (for example, the word dashing in meaning daring, brave (dashing person) and bad, bad (dashing driver);

- ironic use of a word, when positive is replaced by negative over time (for example, honored in meaning honor And scold, scold);

Polysemy of morphemes (for example, words listened, watched).

Antonyms based on opposites are divided into 3 types:

1 type. Antonyms expressing qualitative opposition. They can be defined as the extreme points of a series of words denoting homogeneous concepts(For example, quiet - loud, stupid - smart, love - hate, etc.). Their main feature symmetry (mirror opposite). Such antonyms are called full. Let's imagine a straight line with a starting point in the middle. Let's take the extreme points. These are complete antonyms, they are symmetrical (for example, cold - hot). Now we will observe stepwise opposition, which characterizes a gradual change in the attribute (for example, cool - warm, cold - hot, frosty - hot etc.). This incomplete antonyms, they do not have a sharp transition, they have great stylistic resources. They allow you to convey ideas flexibly and accurately and create an unusually vivid image. For example:

There are pale-faced poems,

And there are rosy ones.

That's how apple juicy,

They are as dry as tin (S. Ostrovoy).

Type 2 Antonyms expressing complementarity make up a relatively small number of word pairs. They are represented by only two members (for example, true - false, war - peace, husband - wife, observe - violate, etc.).

Type 3 Antonyms expressing the opposite direction of actions, properties, characteristics (for example, enter - exit, sunrise - sunset, attack - counterattack, etc.).

The use of antonyms makes speech more expressive. Antonyms are used especially widely in folklore. For example:

In proverbs and sayings: IN joke said yes seriously intended. In summer prepare the sleigh and in winter - cart;

- in the beginnings of fairy tales: Close whether, far whether, low whether, high whether. See P.P. Ershov in the fairy tale “The Little Humpbacked Horse”:

Behind the mountains, behind the forests,

Across the wide seas

Not in heaven - on earth

An old man lived in a village.

The old lady has three sons:

The eldest was a smart kid,

Middle son and this way and that,

The younger one was completely stupid.

The brothers sowed wheat

Yes, they took us to the capital city:

You know, that was the capital

Not far from the village.

They sold wheat there

Money was accepted by account

And with a full bag

We were returning home;

- in riddles;

In epics, etc.

Antonyms are not uncommon in poetry. See, for example, V.V. Mayakovsky: Joy crawls like a snail grief mad run. Or from R. Rozhdestvensky: Am I in distant lands? I hate or I love - from the big one, from the main one- quarter- I won't back down. Antonyms are often found in the poetry of A. Blok, M.Yu. Lermontova and others.

Antonyms are used as titles of works: "War and Peace" L.N. Tolstoy, "Days and Nights" K. Simonova, “Thick and Thin” by A.P. Chekhov, “The Living and the Dead” by K. Simonov, “Crime and Punishment” by F.M. Dostoevsky, “Fathers and Sons” by I.S. Turgenev, etc.

Why are antonyms used in speech, fiction and journalistic works? To achieve various stylistic effects.

1. First of all, this antithesis - a sharp contrast that conveys the contrast between objects, states and actions. For example: I am a king, I am a slave, I am a god, I am a worm(G.R. Derzhavin ) (see Appendix 14) ; Country of slaves, country of masters ( M.Yu. Lermontov ).

We used the antithesis of L.N. Tolstoy (novel “War and Peace”), A. Blok (poem “Retribution, Prologue”), M.Yu. Lermontov (poem “Demon”, oath of the Demon).

2. Stylistic device – oxymoron built on the combination in one phrase or sentence of words that are incompatible in meaning and related to each other subordinating connection(For example:

Shadow uncreated creatures sways in his sleep.

Like lotanium blades on an enamel wall (Bryusov).

3. Stylistic device – end-to-end contrast (for example, in F. Tyutchev’s poem “Wave and Thought” two lines of contrast are created: souls ( thought and wave, heart and sea) and nature ( cramped - boundless, confinement - spacious).

The following functions of antonyms are distinguished, which depend on the use of antonyms in certain contexts:

Opposition ( You are rich, I am very poor (A.S. Pushkin);

Mutual exclusion ( He had only one opinion about people - good or bad (K. Simonov);

Transformation of one opposite into another ( Everything suddenly became complicated - the simplest (L.N. Tolstoy);

Controversy ( End! How sonorous this word is, how many - few thoughts there are in it (M.Yu. Lermontov);

- a means of creating irony. See M. Gorky: I won't say how bitterly workers live in these sweet establishments that produce sweets and gingerbread;

- strengthening the emotional and stylistic sound of speech ( The smart one will teach you, the fool will get bored) etc.

Along with general literary antonyms in the language fiction not uncommon contextual (individual) antonyms - these are contrasts of words that are not antonymous in ordinary use. See, for example, A.S. Pushkin:

They got along. Wave and stone

Poetry and prose, ice and fire

Not so different from each other (see Appendix 15) .

Writers and poets sometimes use stylistic synonyms as antonyms. For example: No I– artist , not actor. And Uli had big, dark brown eyes, - not the eyes , A eyes ...(A. Fadeev).

Antonyms are words that differ in sound and have opposite meanings: lie - truth, evil - good, remain silent - speak. Examples of antonyms show that they refer to the same part of speech.

Antonymy in the Russian language is represented much narrower than synonymy. This is explained by the fact that only words that are correlated qualitatively (good - bad, native - alien, smart - stupid, thick - sparse, high - low), temporal (day - night, early - late), quantitative (single - multiple, many - few), spatial (spacious - cramped, large - small, wide - narrow, high - low) characteristics.

There are antonymous pairs denoting the names of states and actions. Examples of antonyms of this kind: rejoice - grieve, cry - laugh.

Types and examples of antonyms in Russian

Antonyms according to their structure are divided into multi-rooted (morning - evening) and single-rooted (come in - go out). The opposite meaning of antonyms with the same root is caused by prefixes. However, it should be remembered that adding prefixes to adverbs without-, Not- in most cases, gives them the meaning of a weakened opposite (tall - short), so the contrast of their meanings turns out to be “muted” (short - this does not mean “low”). Based on this, not all prefix formations can be classified as antonyms, but only those that are the extreme points of the lexical paradigm: strong - powerless, harmful - harmless, successful - unsuccessful.

Antonyms, as well as synonyms, are in close connection with polysemy: empty - serious (conversation); empty - full (cup); empty - expressive (look); empty - meaningful (story). Examples of antonyms show that different meanings of the word "empty" are included in different antonymic pairs. Unambiguous words, as well as words with specific meanings (iamb, pencil, desk, notebook, etc.) cannot have antonyms.

Among antonyms, there is also the phenomenon of enantiosemy - this is the development of mutually exclusive, opposite meanings of some polysemantic words: carry (into the room, bring) - carry (from the room, take away); abandoned (phrase just spoken) - abandoned (abandoned, forgotten). The meaning in such cases is clarified in context. Enantiosemy is often the cause of ambiguity in certain expressions. Examples of antonyms of this kind: he listened to the report; the director looked at these lines.

Contextual antonyms: examples and definition

Contextual antonyms are words that are contrasted in a specific context: moonlight - sunlight; not a mother, but a daughter; one day - a whole life; wolves are sheep. The polarity of the meanings of such words is not fixed in the language, and their opposition is an individual author’s decision. In such cases, the writer identifies the opposing qualities of various concepts and contrasts them in speech. However, such pairs of words are not antonyms.

Antonyms are words of the same part of speech, different in sound and spelling, having directly opposite lexical meanings, for example: “truth” - “lie”, “good” - “evil”, “speak” - “be silent”.

Types of antonyms:

1. Multi-rooted. This type of antonyms is the most representative. Opposite meanings belong to these words as a whole (for example, high - low, heat - cold, catch up - lag behind, etc.). Some prepositions are also contrasted as antonyms (for example, for and before (behind the closet - in front of the closet), in and from (into the room - from the room).

2. Single-rooted. For them, the meaning of the opposite is expressed not by the root parts of words, but by affixal morphemes. Antonymy arises from the opposition of prefixes (for example, pri- and u- (come - go), v- and s- (get in - get off), or as a result of the use of negative prefixes that give the word the opposite meaning (for example, literate - illiterate, tasty - tasteless, military - anti-war, revolution - counter-revolution, etc.).

3. Contextual (or contextual) antonyms are words that are not contrasted in meaning in the language and are antonyms only in the text: Mind and heart - ice and fire - these are the main things that distinguished this hero.

4. Enantiosemy is the opposite of the meaning of the same word. Sometimes it is not individual words that can be antonymous, but different meanings of one word (for example, the word priceless, meaning: 1. having a very high price (priceless treasures). 2. not having any price (bought for next to nothing, i.e. very cheap) . The word blessed, meaning: 1. extremely happy (blessed state). 2. stupid (earlier meaning holy fool).

5. Proportional (having opposite actions: rise - fall, get fat - lose weight) and disproportionate (a certain action is opposed to inaction: leave - stay, light up - put out).

6. Linguistic (exist in the language system: high - low, right - left) and speech (formed in speech patterns: priceless - penny worth, beauty - swamp kikimara);

Functions of antonyms:

1. The main stylistic function of antonyms is a lexical means for constructing an antithesis. P: We both hate and we love by chance.

2. The opposite of antithesis is the use of antonyms with negation. It is used to emphasize the lack of a clearly defined quality in the item being described. P: She wasn’t pretty, she wasn’t ugly

3. Antonymy is the basis of an oxymoron (from the Greek oxymoron ‘witty-stupid’) - a stylistic figure that creates a new concept by combining words with contrasting meanings. P: The shadow of uncreated creatures sways in sleep. Like lotanium blades on an enamel wall (Bryusov).

4. Antonyms are used to emphasize the completeness of coverage of what is depicted - stringing together antonymic pairs. P: In the world there is good and evil, lies and truth, grief and joy.

Anaphrasis is the use of one of the antonyms, while another should be used: where, smart one, are you wandering from, head? (appeal to the donkey). Antonymous pairs should be composed logically.

Original Russian vocabulary.

The original Russian vocabulary is heterogeneous in its origin: it consists of several layers that differ in the time of their formation.

The most ancient among native Russian words are Indo-Europeanisms - words , preserved from the era of Indo-European linguistic unity. According to scientists, in the V-IV millennia BC. e. There was an ancient Indo-European civilization that united tribes living over a fairly vast territory. So, according to the research of some linguists, it extended from the Volga to the Yenisei, others believe that it was Balkan-Danube, or South Russian, localization 1 The Indo-European linguistic community gave rise to European and some Asian languages ​​(for example, Bengali, Sanskrit).

The words go back to the Indo-European parent language, denoting plants, animals, metals and minerals, tools, forms of economic management, types of kinship, etc.: oak, salmon, goose, wolf, sheep, copper, bronze, honey, mother, son, daughter, night, moon, snow, water, new, sew etc.

Another layer of native Russian vocabulary consists of common Slavic words, inherited by our language from common Slavic (proto-Slavic), which served as a source for all Slavic languages. This base language existed in prehistoric times on the territory between the Dnieper, Bug and Vistula rivers, inhabited by ancient Slavic tribes. By the VI-VII centuries. n. e. The common Slavic language collapsed, opening the way for the development of Slavic languages, including Old Russian. Common Slavic words are easily distinguished in all Slavic languages, the common origin of which is obvious in our time.

Among o Pan-Slavic There are a lot of words, nouns. These are primarily concrete nouns: head, throat, beard, heart, palm; field, mountain, forest, birch, maple, ox, cow, pig; sickle, pitchfork, knife, net, neighbor, guest, servant, friend; shepherd, spinner, potter. There are also abstract nouns, but there are fewer of them: faith, will, guilt, sin, happiness, glory, rage, thought.

The following verbs are represented in the common Slavic vocabulary from other parts of speech: see, hear, grow, lie; adjectives: kind, young, old, wise, cunning; numerals: one two Three; pronouns: me, you, we, you; pronominal adverbs: where, how and some auxiliary parts of speech: over, and, and, yes, but etc.

The common Slavic vocabulary has about two thousand words, however, this relatively small vocabulary constitutes the core of the Russian dictionary; it includes the most common, stylistically neutral words used both in oral and written speech.

The Slavic languages, which had their source in the ancient Proto-Slavic language, were separated into three groups according to their sound, grammatical and lexical features: southern, western and eastern.

The third layer of native Russian words consists of East Slavic (Old Russian) vocabulary, which developed on the basis of the language Eastern Slavs, one of three groups of ancient Slavic languages. The East Slavic linguistic community developed by the 7th-9th centuries. n. e. on the territory Eastern Europe. The Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian nationalities go back to the tribal unions that lived here. Therefore, the words remaining in our language from this period are known, as a rule, in both the Ukrainian and Belarusian languages, but are absent in the languages ​​of the Western and Southern Slavs.

The East Slavic vocabulary includes:

· 1) names of animals, birds: dog, squirrel, jackdaw, drake, bullfinch;

· 2) names of tools: axe, blade;

· 3) names of household items: boot, ladle, casket, ruble;

· 4) names of people by profession: carpenter, cook, shoemaker, miller;

· 5) names of settlements: village, settlement and other lexical-semantic groups.

The fourth layer of native Russian words is the Russian vocabulary itself, which was formed after the 14th century, i.e., in the era of independent development of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian languages. These languages ​​already have their own equivalents for words that belong to the Russian vocabulary proper. Actually Russian words are distinguished, as a rule, by a derivative stem: bricklayer, leaflet, locker room, community, intervention and under.

It should be emphasized that the Russian vocabulary itself may contain words with foreign roots that have gone through the path of Russian word formation and are overgrown with Russian suffixes and prefixes: partisanship, non-partisanship, aggressiveness; ruler, glass, teapot; words with a complex base: radio center, locomotive, as well as many complex abbreviated words that replenished our language in the 20th century: Moscow Art Theater, timber industry enterprise, wall newspaper etc.

The original Russian vocabulary continues to be replenished with words that are created on the basis of the word-formation resources of the language, as a result of a wide variety of processes characteristic of Russian word formation.

Borrowed vocabulary.

Linguists call the process of moving foreign language elements from one language to another language borrowing. Speaking about “foreign language elements”, we mean units of all levels of language structure - phonology, morphology, vocabulary, syntax. The most frequently borrowed lexical elements.

Antonyms are words of the same part of speech, different in sound, having directly opposite meanings: truth - lie, good - evil, speak - remain silent.

It should also be said that antonyms must have:

Equal degree of emotionality (laugh and cry are not antonyms, since they have different emotionality, antonyms are laugh and cry, laugh and cry)

Same semantic valence (high part (no low honor))

To study antonymy, a research unit is chosen - the antonymic series, which has the properties of 3 planes of language (paradigmatic, syntomatic and functional)

Stylistic role of antonyms:

Antithesis - a stylistic figure built on a sharp opposition (good - bad)

Oxymoron - logically incompatible concepts (living corpse)

Enantiosemy - the development of a word with the opposite meaning (view (read) - view (not notice))

Types of antonyms:

Contrary (opposite) - antonyms expressing polar opposites within one essence in the presence of transitional links - internal gradation (loved - indifferent - hated)

Contradictory - such opposites that mutually complement each other to the whole, without transitional links; they are in relation to privative opposition (bad - good, lie - truth, living - dead)

Conversion - words that describe the same situation from the point of view of different participants (buy - sell, husband - wife, teach - learn, lose - win, lose - find). It is common for conversions to have multiple subjects but one object.

Vector - antonyms that express different directions of actions, signs, social phenomena, etc. (enter - exit, descend - rise, light - extinguish, revolution - counter-revolution)

Pragmatic - words that are regularly contrasted in the practice of their use, in contexts (soul - body, mind - heart, earth - sky)

Antonymic paradigm- combining words with opposite meanings.

It is based on common integral and differential features.

Antonymous pair- a specific feature of antonyms (date - parting)

Question

Etymology. De-etymologization. "Folk etymology"

Etymology – establishing the original meaning of a word, i.e. etymon words.

Folk etymology - non-scientific etymology, based on the random convergence of an unknown word with a known one. (“boulevard” (comparison with the verb “to walk”)

De-etymologization - oblivion, loss of the original. sign, as a result of which there is a gap between family ties. (“important” - compare Old Russian “vaga”)

Motivation of the word. The concept of internal form. The phenomenon of “folk etymology”. An integral part the internal content of many words is the so-called motivation- the “justification” of the sound appearance of this word contained in the word and realized by the speakers. Every object, every phenomenon of reality has many signs. The cuckoo not only cries “cuckoo”, but has a certain head shape, certain habits...Motivation based on a real motivating feature can be called real In other cases it occurs fantastic motivation reflecting mythical ideas, poetic fiction and legends. May be different ways of linguistic expression of a motivating feature . The “sound matter” of language creates the possibility of “pictorial motivation,” allowing one to imitate, to one degree or another, the characteristic sound of an object. Much more often than “figurative”, “descriptive motivation” occurs, i.e. “description” of a motivating feature using an ordinary (word. This can be observed 1) when using a word in figurative meaning, 2) in derivatives and difficult words. “Descriptive motivation” is relative and limited: ultimately it always relies on an unmotivated word. Motivation is like a way of depicting a given meaning in a word, a more or less visual “image” of this meaning. The motivation reveals the approach of a person’s thought to a given phenomenon, as it was during the very creation of the word, and therefore the motivation is sometimes called the “internal form of the word,” considering it as a link through which the content of the word is connected with its external form - morphological structure and sound. Internal the form of a word is the semantic and structural correlation of the morphemes that make up the word. The difference between motivation and meaning is clearly visible in cases where the same meaning is motivated in different languages or in synonymous words of the same language in different ways. At the same time, often words with different meanings have the same or very similar motivation. For example, squirrel, white hare(hare).. The motivation of a word is associated with its emotional connotations. This manifests itself in a conscious repulsion from words with “unpleasant” motivation. There are other specific reasons that contribute to the loss of motivation in certain cases. However, it is important to emphasize that in addition to all the specific, particular reasons, there is also a general prerequisite that makes it possible to lose the motivation of a word. This is redundancy, even the uselessness of motivation from the moment the word becomes familiar. Motivation is necessary at the moment of the birth of a word: without motivation, a word, in fact, cannot arise. A special branch of lexicology is engaged in elucidating forgotten, lost motivations and, thus, studying the origin of the corresponding words, namely: etymology. Etymology also refers to every hypothesis about the origin and original motivation of a word (in this sense, the term etymology also used in plural). Finally, etymology is the very origin of the word and its motivation. The internal form is: 1 derivative words (tigress, tiger), words with a transfer meaning.