Jung Carl Gustav

Psychological types

Carl Gustav Jung

Psychological types

Carl Gustav Jung and analytical psychology. V. V. Zelensky

Preface. V. V. Zelensky

From the editor of the Russian edition of 1929 E. Medtner

Preface to the first Swiss edition

Preface to the seventh Swiss edition

Preface to the Argentine edition

Introduction

I. The problem of types in the history of ancient and medieval thought

1. Psychology of the classical period: Gnostics, Tertullian, Origen

2. Theological disputes in the early Christian Church

3. The problem of transubstantiation

4. Nominalism and realism

5. Dispute between Luther and Zwingli about the sacrament

II. Schiller's ideas on the problem of types

1. Letters on the aesthetic education of a person

2. Reflections on Naive and Sentimental Poetry

III. Apollonian and Dionysian beginning

IV. The problem of types in human science

1. Overview of Jordan types

2. Special exposition and criticism of Jordan types

V. The problem of types in poetry. Prometheus and Epimetheus by Karl Spitteler

1. Preliminary remarks on Spitteler typing

2. Comparison of Spitteler's Prometheus with Goethe's Prometheus

3. The meaning of the unifying symbol

4. Symbol Relativity

5. The nature of the unifying symbol in Spitteler

VI. The problem of types in psychopathology

VII. The problem of typical attitudes in aesthetics

VIII. The problem of types in modern philosophy

1. Types according to James

2. Characteristic pairs of opposites in James types

3. Toward a critique of the James concept

IX. The Problem of Types in Biography

X. General description of types

1. Introduction

2. Extrovert type

3. Introvert type

XI. Definition of terms

Conclusion

Applications. Four works on psychological typology

1. To the question of learning psychological types

2. Psychological types

3. Psychological type theory

4. Psychological typology

Carl Gustav Jung and Analytical Psychology

Among the most prominent thinkers of the 20th century, it is safe to name the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung.

As you know, analytical, more precisely, depth psychology is a general designation of a number of psychological trends that put forward, among other things, the idea of ​​the independence of the psyche from consciousness and seek to substantiate the actual existence of this psyche independent of consciousness and reveal its content. One of these areas, based on the concepts and discoveries in the field of the mental, made by Jung at different times, is analytical psychology. Today, in the everyday cultural environment, such concepts as complex, extrovert, introvert, archetype, once introduced into psychology by Jung, have become common and even stereotyped. There is a misconception that Jung's ideas grew out of idiosyncrasy towards psychoanalysis. And although a number of Jung's provisions are indeed based on Freud's objections, the context itself, in which the "building elements" that subsequently formed the original psychological system arose in different periods, of course, is much broader and, most importantly, it is based on ideas and views that are different from Freud's. both on human nature and on the interpretation of clinical and psychological data.

Carl Jung was born on July 26, 1875 in Kesswil, Canton Thurgau, on the shores of the picturesque Lake Konstanz in the family of a pastor of the Swiss Reformed Church; my paternal grandfather and great-grandfather were doctors. He studied at the Basel Gymnasium, his favorite subjects of the gymnasium years were zoology, biology, archeology and history. In April 1895 he entered the University of Basel, where he studied medicine, but then decided to specialize in psychiatry and psychology. In addition to these disciplines, he was deeply interested in philosophy, theology, and the occult.

After graduating from the medical faculty, Jung wrote a dissertation "On the Psychology and Pathology of the So-Called Occult Phenomena", which turned out to be a prelude to his creative period that lasted almost sixty years. Based on carefully prepared séances with her extraordinarily gifted mediumistic cousin Helen Preiswerk, Jung's work presented a description of her messages received in a state of mediumistic trance. It is important to note that from the very beginning of his professional career, Jung was interested in unconscious mental products and their meaning for the subject. Already in this study /1-V.1. S.1-84; 2- P.225-330/ one can easily see the logical basis of all his subsequent works in their development - from the theory of complexes to archetypes, from the content of libido to ideas about synchronicity, etc.

In 1900, Jung moved to Zurich and began working as an assistant to Eugene Bleuler, a well-known psychiatrist at the time, at the Burchholzli mental hospital (a suburb of Zurich). He settled in the hospital area, and from that moment on, the life of a young employee began to pass in the atmosphere of a psychiatric monastery. Bleuler was the visible embodiment of work and professional duty. From himself and his employees, he demanded accuracy, accuracy and attentiveness to patients. The morning tour ended at 8.30 am with a working meeting of the staff, at which reports on the condition of the patients were heard. Two or three times a week at 10.00 in the morning there were meetings of doctors with a mandatory discussion of the case histories of both old and newly admitted patients. The meetings took place with the indispensable participation of Bleuler himself. The obligatory evening round took place between five and seven o'clock in the evening. There were no secretaries, and the staff themselves typed the medical records, so sometimes they had to work until eleven o'clock in the evening. The hospital gates and doors were closed at 10.00 pm. The junior staff had no keys, so if Jung wanted to get home from the city later, he had to ask for the key from one of the senior staff. Dry law reigned on the territory of the hospital. Jung mentions that he spent the first six months completely cut off from the outside world and read the fifty-volume Allgemeine Zeitschrift fur Psychiatrie in his spare time.

Soon he began to publish his first clinical papers, as well as articles on the application of the word association test he had developed. Jung came to the conclusion that through verbal connections it is possible to detect (“grope”) certain sets (constellations) of sensually colored (or emotionally “charged”) thoughts, concepts, ideas and, thereby, enable painful symptoms to emerge. The test worked by evaluating the patient's response by the time delay between stimulus and response. As a result, a correspondence was revealed between the reaction word and the subject's behavior itself. Significant deviation from the norm marked the presence of affectively loaded unconscious ideas, and Jung coined the term "complex" to describe their whole combination. /3- P.40 et seq./

Already from the earliest days in the history of science there has been an attempt by the reflective intellect to introduce gradations between the two poles of absolute similarity and difference in human beings. This was realized in a number of types, or "temperaments" - as they were then called - which classified similarities and differences into formal categories. The Greek philosopher Empedocles tried to bring order to the chaos of natural phenomena by dividing them into four elements: earth, water, air and fire. The physicians of that time were the first to apply this principle of separation, in conjunction with the doctrine of the four qualities - dry, wet, cold, warm - in relation to people, and thus they tried to reduce the confused diversity of mankind into ordered groups. Most significant in a series of such attempts was that of Galen, whose use of these teachings influenced medical science and the very treatment of the sick for seventeen centuries. The very names of Galen's temperaments indicate their origin in the pathology of the four "morals" or "inclinations" - qualities. Melancholic denotes the predominance of black bile, phlegmatic the predominance of phlegm or mucus (the Greek word phlegm means fire, and phlegm was seen as the end product of inflammation), sanguine the predominance of blood and choleric the predominance of yellow bile.

It is evident today that our modern concept of "temperament" has become much more psychological, for in the process of human development over the last two thousand years the "soul" has been freed from any intelligible association with cold chills and fevers, or from bile or mucous secretions. Even today's doctors would not be able to compare temperament, that is, a certain type of emotional state or excitability, directly with the specifics of the blood circulation or the state of the lymph, although their profession and the specific approach to a person from the position of a physical ailment tempt much more often than non-professionals to consider the mental as an end product. , depending on the physiology of the glands. Humors ("juices" of the human body) of today's medicine are no longer old bodily secretions, but turn out to be more subtle hormones, sometimes to a significant extent influencing "temperament", if the latter is defined as an integral sum of emotional reactions. The whole body structure, its constitution in the broadest sense, has a very close relationship with the psychological temperament, so that we have no right to blame doctors if they consider mental phenomena to be largely dependent on the body. In a sense, the psychic is the living body, and the living body is animate matter; one way or another, there is an unrevealed unity of the psyche and the body, which needs both physical and mental study and research, in other words, this unity necessarily and equally turns out to be dependent on both the body and the psyche, and to such an extent that as far as the researcher himself is inclined to that. The materialism of the 19th century affirmed the primacy of the body, leaving the mental status of something secondary and derivative, allowing it no more reality than the so-called "epiphenomenon". What established itself as a good working hypothesis, namely that mental phenomena are due to physical processes, became a philosophical presumption with the advent of materialism. Any serious science of the living organism will reject such a presumption, since, on the one hand, it constantly has in mind that living matter is still an unsolved mystery, and on the other hand, there is enough objective evidence to recognize the presence of a completely incompatible gap between mental and physical phenomena, so that the psychic realm is no less mysterious than the physical.

The materialistic presumption turned out to be possible only in recent times, when man's idea of ​​the psychic, which has changed over many centuries, was able to free itself from old views and develop in a rather abstract direction. The ancients represented the mental and the physical together as an inseparable unity, since they were closer to that primitive world in which the moral crack had not yet run through the personality, and unenlightened paganism still felt itself inseparably united, childishly innocent and not burdened with responsibility. The ancient Egyptians still retained the ability to indulge in naive joy when listing those sins that they did not commit: “I did not let a single person go hungry. I didn't make anyone cry. I didn't commit murder" and so on. The heroes of Homer wept, laughed, got angry, outsmarted and killed each other in a world where such things were considered natural and obvious to both men and gods, and the Olympians amused themselves by spending their days in a state of unfading irresponsibility.

This took place at such an archaic level, at which pre-philosophical man existed and survived. He was completely in the grip of his own emotions. All the passions from which his blood boiled and his heart pounded, which accelerated his breathing or forced him to hold it completely or turned his insides inside out - all this was a manifestation of the "soul". So he placed the soul in the region of the diaphragm (in Greek, phren, which also means "mind") and the heart. And only among the first philosophers the place of reason began to be attributed to the head. But even today there are tribes among the Negroes, whose "thoughts" are localized mainly in the abdomen, and the Pueblo Indians "think" with their hearts - only a madman thinks with his head, they say. At this level of consciousness, the experience of sensual explosions and the feeling of self-unity are essential. However, at the same time silent and tragic for the archaic man who began to think, was the emergence of the dichotomy that Nietzsche placed at the door of Zarathustra: the discovery of pairs of opposites, the division into even and odd, superior and inferior, good and evil. It was the work of the ancient Pythagoreans that became their doctrine of moral responsibility and the serious metaphysical consequences of sin, a doctrine which gradually percolated over the centuries into all social classes, chiefly through the spread of the Orphic and Pythagorean mysteries. Even Plato used the parable of white and black horses to illustrate the stubbornness and polarity of the human psyche, and even earlier the mysteries proclaimed the doctrine of good being rewarded in the future and evil being punished in hell. These teachings could not be rejected as mystical nonsense and deceit of philosophers from the “backwoods”, as Nietzsche claimed, or as sectarian hypocrisy, since already in the 6th century BC. e. Pythagoreanism was something of a state religion throughout Graecia Magna (Greater Greece). In addition, the ideas that formed the basis of these mysteries never died out, but experienced a philosophical renaissance in the 2nd century BC. e., when they had a huge impact on the world of Alexandrian thought. Their encounter with Old Testament prophecy led subsequently to what may be called the beginning of Christianity as a world religion.

Now, from Hellenistic syncretism, a division of people into types arises, which was completely uncharacteristic of the “humoral” psychology of Greek medicine. In a philosophical sense, this is where the gradations between Parmenides' poles of light and darkness, above and below, arose. People began to be divided into hyliks (hylikoi), psychics (psychikoi) and pneumatics (pneumaticoi), highlighting, respectively, material, mental and spiritual being. Such a classification is not, of course, a scientific formulation of similarities and differences - it is a critical system of values ​​based not on the behavior and appearance of a person as a phenotype, but on definitions of an ethical, mystical and philosophical nature. Although the latter are not exactly "Christian" terms, they nevertheless formed an integral part of early Christianity in the time of St. Paul. Its very existence is irrefutable evidence of the split that arose in the original unity of a person who was completely in the power of his emotions. Before that, a person appeared as an ordinary living being and remained in this capacity only a toy of experience, his experiences, incapable of any reflective analysis regarding his origin and his destiny. And now, suddenly, he found himself facing three fateful factors - endowed with a body, soul and spirit, to each of which he had a moral obligation. Presumably already at birth it was decided whether he would spend his life in a hylic or pneumatic state, or in some indeterminate location in between. The firmly rooted dichotomy of the Greek mind made the latter sharper and more penetrating, and the resulting emphasis now shifted considerably to the psychic and the spiritual, leading to an inevitable separation from the hylic region of the body. All the highest and ultimate goals lay in the moral predestination of man, in his spiritual supra-mundane and super-earthly final sojourn, and the separation of the gilic region turned into a stratification between the world and the spirit. Thus the original courteous wisdom, expressed in Pythagorean pairs of opposites, became a passionate moral conflict. Nothing, however, can so excite our self-consciousness and alertness as a state of war with ourselves. It is hardly possible to think of any other more effective means of awakening human nature from the irresponsible and innocent half-sleep of primitive mentality and bringing it to a state of conscious responsibility.

This process is called cultural development. In any case, it is the development of the human capacity for discrimination and judgment - consciousness in general. With the growth of knowledge and the increase of critical abilities, the foundations were laid for the subsequent development of the human mind everywhere in terms of (from the standpoint of) intellectual achievements. Science has become a special mental product, far surpassing all the achievements of the ancient world. It closed the crack between man and nature in the sense that, although man was separated from nature, science enabled him to find again his proper place in the natural order of things. However, his special metaphysical position had to be thrown overboard at the same time, rejected to the extent that it was not provided by faith in traditional religion - from which the well-known conflict between "faith and knowledge" arose. In any case, science has carried out an excellent rehabilitation of matter, and in this respect materialism can even be regarded as an act of historical justice.

But one, undoubtedly very important, area of ​​experience, the human psyche itself, for a very long time remained the reserved area of ​​\u200b\u200bmetaphysics, although after the Enlightenment more and more serious attempts were made to make it accessible to scientific research. The first experimental experiments were made in the field of sensory perceptions, and then gradually moved into the field of associations. This line of research paved the way for experimental psychology and culminated in Wundt's "physiological psychology". A more descriptive approach to psychology, with which physicians soon came into contact, developed in France. Its main representatives were Taine, Ribot and Janet. This direction was mainly characterized by the fact that in it the mental was divided into separate mechanisms or processes. In the light of these attempts, today there is an approach that could be called "holistic" - the systematic observation of the mental as a whole. Much indicates that this direction originated in a certain biographical type, in particular in the type that in ancient times, also having its own specific advantages, was described as "amazing fate." In this connection I think of Justin Kerner and his Seeress of Prevorst and the case of Blumhardt Sr. and his medium Gottliebin Dittus. However, to be historically fair, I must remember to mention the medieval Acta Sanctorum.

This line of research has continued in later writings related to the names of William James, Freud and Theodore Flournoy. James and his friend Flournoy, a Swiss psychologist, made an attempt to describe the holistic phenomenology of the mental, and also to survey it as something holistic. Freud, like a physician, took as his starting point the integrity and inseparability of the human personality, although, in accordance with the spirit of the times, he limited himself to the study of instinctive mechanisms and individual processes. He also narrowed the picture of man to the integrity of a very important "bourgeois" collective personality, and this inevitably led him to philosophically one-sided interpretations. Freud, unfortunately, could not resist the temptations of the physician and reduced everything psychic to the corporeal, doing this in the manner of the old "humoral" psychologists, not without revolutionary gestures towards those metaphysical reserves for which he had a sacred fear.

In contrast to Freud, who, after a correct psychological start, turned back towards the ancient assumption of the supremacy (sovereignty, independence) of the physical constitution and tried to return back to a theory in which instinctive processes are conditioned by bodily ones, I begin with the premise of the supremacy of the mental. Since the bodily and the psychic form a unity in a certain sense - although they are quite different in their manifestations of nature - we cannot but attribute reality to each of them. Until we have a way of comprehending this unity, there is nothing left but to study them separately and temporarily treat them as independent of each other, at least in their structure. But the fact that they are not like that can be observed every day on ourselves. Although if we were limited only to this, we would never be able to understand anything in the psychic at all.

Now, if we assume the independent supremacy of the psychic, then we free ourselves from the - for the moment - insoluble task of reducing the manifestations of the psychic to something definitely physical. We can then take the manifestations of the psychic as expressions of its inner being and try to establish certain similarities and correspondences or types. Therefore, when I speak about psychological typology, I mean by this the formulation of the structural elements of the mental, and not the description of the mental manifestations (emanation) of the individual type of constitution. The latter, in particular, is considered in studies on the structure of the body and the character of Kretschmer.

In my book Psychological Types, I have given a detailed description of a purely psychological typology. The research I conducted was based on twenty years of medical work, which allowed me to come into close contact with people of various classes and levels from all over the world. When you start as a young doctor, your head is still full of clinical cases and diagnoses. Over time, however, impressions of a completely different kind accumulate. Among them is a bewildering variety of human personalities, a chaotic abundance of individual cases. The specific circumstances around them, and above all the specific characters themselves, create clinical pictures, pictures that, even with the best will, can only be squeezed into the straitjacket of diagnosis by force. The fact that a certain disorder can be given a particular name looks completely irrelevant next to the overwhelming impression that all clinical pictures are numerous imitative or stage displays of certain specific character traits. The pathological problem, to which it all boils down, has in fact nothing to do with the clinical picture, but, in fact, is an expression of character. Even the complexes themselves, these "core elements" of the neurosis, are, among other things, mere concomitants of a certain characterological predisposition. This is most easily seen in the patient's relationship to his family of origin. Let's say he is one of four children of his parents, not the youngest and not the oldest, has the same education and conditioned behavior as the others. However, he is sick, and they are healthy. The anamnesis shows that the whole series of influences to which he, like others, was exposed and from which they all suffered, had a pathological effect only on him alone - at least outwardly, apparently. In fact, these influences were not etiological factors in his case either, and it is not difficult to verify their falsity. The real cause of the neurosis lies in the specific way in which he reacts and assimilates these influences from his environment.

In comparing many similar cases, it gradually became clear to me that there must be two fundamentally different general attitudes that divide people into two groups, providing for all mankind the possibility of a highly differentiated individuality. Since it is obviously not the case as such, it can only be said that this difference in attitudes is easily observable only when we are confronted with a relatively well-differentiated personality, in other words, it becomes of practical importance only after a certain degree of differentiation has been reached. Pathological cases of this kind are almost always people who deviate from the family type and as a result no longer find sufficient protection in their inherited instinctual basis. Weak instincts are one of the first causes of the development of a habitual one-sided attitude, although, in the extreme case, this is due or reinforced by heredity.

I have called these two fundamentally different attitudes extraversion and introversion. Extraversion is characterized by an interest in an external object, responsiveness and readiness to perceive external events, a desire to influence and be influenced by events, a need to interact with the outside world, the ability to endure turmoil and noise of any kind, and actually find pleasure in it, the ability to maintain constant attention to the outside world, to make many friends and acquaintances without much, however, analysis and, ultimately, the presence of a feeling of great importance to be close to someone chosen, and therefore, a strong tendency to demonstrate oneself. Accordingly, the life philosophy of an extrovert and his ethics carry, as a rule, a highly collectivist nature (beginning) with a strong tendency to altruism. His conscience largely depends on public opinion. Moral concerns arise mainly when "other people know". The religious beliefs of such a person are determined, so to speak, by a majority of votes.

The real subject, the extravert as a subjective being, is - as far as possible - immersed in darkness. He hides his subjective principle from himself under the cover of the unconscious. The reluctance to subject one's own motives and impulses to critical reflection is very clear. He has no secrets, he cannot keep them for long, because he shares everything with others. If something that cannot be mentioned touches him, such a person will prefer to forget it. Everything that can dim the parade of optimism and positivism is avoided. Whatever he thinks, does, or intends to do, is delivered convincingly and warmly.

The mental life of a given personality type is played out, so to speak, outside of itself, in the environment. He lives in and through others - any reflection on himself makes him shudder. The dangers lurking there are best overcome by noise. If he has a "complex", he takes refuge in social whirl, turmoil and allows several times a day to be assured that everything is in order. In the event that he does not interfere too much in other people's affairs, is not too assertive and not too superficial, he can be a pronounced useful member of any community.

In this short article, I must content myself with a cursory sketch. I simply intend to give the reader some idea of ​​what extraversion is, something that he can bring into line with his own knowledge of human nature. I deliberately began with a description of extraversion, since this attitude is familiar to everyone - an extrovert not only lives in this attitude, but also demonstrates it in every possible way in front of his comrades out of principle. In addition, such an attitude is consistent with certain generally recognized ideals and moral principles.

Introversion, on the other hand, which is directed not at the object, but at the subject and not oriented at the object, is not so easy to observe. The introvert is not so accessible, he is, as it were, in constant retreat in front of the object, giving in to him. He keeps aloof from external events, without entering into relationship with them, and shows a distinct negative attitude towards society, as soon as he is among a fair number of people. In large companies, he feels lonely and lost. The thicker the crowd, the stronger its resistance grows. At least he is not "with her" and does not feel love for gatherings of enthusiasts. He can not be classified as a sociable person. What he does, he does in his own way, shielding himself from outside influences. Such a person tends to look awkward, awkward, often deliberately restrained, and it just so happens that either because of a certain arrogance of manner, or because of his gloomy inaccessibility, or something done inappropriately, he unwittingly offends people. He reserves his best qualities for himself and generally does his best to keep silent about them. He easily becomes distrustful, self-willed, often suffers from the inferiority of his feelings and for this reason is also envious. His ability to comprehend the object is not due to fear, but because the object seems to him negative, demanding attention, irresistible or even threatening. Therefore, he suspects everyone of "all mortal sins", he is always afraid of being fooled, so he usually turns out to be very touchy and irritable. He surrounds himself with a barbed wire of embarrassment so tightly and impenetrably that in the end he himself prefers to do something rather than sit inside. He confronts the world with a carefully designed defensive system, composed of scrupulousness, pedantry, moderation and thrift, foresight, "high-lipped" correctness and honesty, painful conscientiousness, politeness and open distrust. There are few pink colors in his picture of the world, since he is supercritical and will find hair in any soup. Under normal circumstances, he is pessimistic and anxious because the world and human beings are not one iota kind and seek to crush him, so that he never feels accepted and favored by them. But he himself also does not accept this world, at least not completely, not completely, since at first everything must be comprehended and discussed by him according to his own critical standards. Ultimately, only those things are accepted from which, for various subjective reasons, he can derive his own benefit.

For him, any thoughts and thoughts about himself are a real pleasure. His own world is a safe harbor, a carefully guarded and fenced garden, closed to the public and hidden from prying eyes. The best is your own company. He feels at home in his world, and only he himself makes any changes in it. His best work is done with his own resources, on his own initiative and in his own way. If he succeeds after a long and exhausting struggle to master something alien to him, he is able to achieve excellent results. The crowd, the majority of views and opinions, public rumor, general enthusiasm will never convince him of anything, but rather make him hide even deeper in his shell.

His relationships with other people become warmer only in conditions of guaranteed security, when he can put aside his protective distrust. Since this happens to him infrequently, then, accordingly, the number of his friends and acquaintances is very limited. So the psychic life of this type is entirely played out within. And if difficulties and conflicts arise there, then all doors and windows are tightly closed. The introvert withdraws into himself along with his complexes, until he ends up in complete isolation.

Despite all these features, being an introvert is by no means a social loss. His retreat into himself does not represent a final renunciation of the world, but a search for a solace in which solitude enables him to make his contribution to the life of the community. This type of personality is the victim of numerous misunderstandings - not because of injustice, but because he himself causes them. Nor can he be free from accusations of taking secret pleasure in mystification, for such a misunderstanding brings him a certain satisfaction, since it confirms his pessimistic point of view. From all this it is not difficult to understand why he is accused of coldness, pride, stubbornness, selfishness, self-satisfaction and vanity, capriciousness, and why he is constantly admonished that devotion to the public interest, sociability, imperturbable refinement and selfless trust in powerful authority are true virtues and testify to a healthy and energetic life.

The introvert quite understands and recognizes the existence of the above-mentioned virtues and admits that somewhere, perhaps - just not in the circle of his acquaintances - there are beautiful spiritual people who enjoy the undiluted possession of these ideal qualities. But self-criticism and awareness of his own motives quite quickly lead him out of error regarding his ability to such virtues, and his incredulous sharp look, sharpened by anxiety, allows him to constantly discover donkey ears sticking out from under the lion's mane in his associates and fellow citizens. Both the world and people are for him troublemakers and a source of danger, without providing him with an appropriate standard by which he could eventually navigate. The only thing that is undeniably true for him is his subjective world, which - as sometimes, in moments of social hallucinations it seems to him - is objective. It would be very easy to accuse such people of the worst kind of subjectivism and of unhealthy individualism, if we were beyond any doubt about the existence of only one objective world. But such a truth, if it exists, is not an axiom - it is only half the truth, the other half of which is that the world also exists in the form in which it is seen by people, and ultimately by the individual. No world simply does not exist and does not exist at all without a penetrating subject who learns about it. The latter, no matter how small and imperceptible it may seem, is always another pillar supporting the entire bridge of the phenomenal world. The attraction to the subject therefore has the same validity as the attraction to the so-called objective world, insofar as this world is based on psychic reality itself. But at the same time it is also a reality with its own specific laws, which by their nature do not belong to derivatives, secondary ones.

The two attitudes, extraversion and introversion, are opposite forms that have made themselves felt no less in the history of human thought. The issues raised by them were largely foreseen by Friedrich Schiller and form the basis of his Letters on Aesthetic Education. But since the concept of the unconscious was still unknown to him, Schiller could not reach a satisfactory solution. But, in addition, philosophers, who are much better equipped to go deeper on this subject, did not want to subject their mental function to a thorough psychological critique and therefore remained aloof from such discussions. It should be clear, however, that the inner polarity of such an attitude has a very strong influence on the philosopher's own point of view.

For the extravert, the object is a priori interesting and attractive, just as the subject or psychic reality is for the introvert. Therefore, we could use the expression "nominal accent" for this fact, by which I mean that for the extravert the quality of positive meaning, importance and value is assigned primarily to the object, so that the object plays a dominant, determining and decisive role in all mental processes. from the very beginning, just as the subject does for the introvert.

But the nominal emphasis does not decide the matter only between subject and object - it also selects the conscious function, which is mainly used by this or that individual. I distinguish four functions: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition. The functional essence of sensation is to establish that something exists, thinking tells us what it means, feeling what its value is, and intuition suggests where it came from and where it is going. I call sensation and intuition irrational functions because they both deal directly with what is happening and with actual or potential realities. Thinking and feeling, being distinctive functions, are rational. Sensation, the function of "reality" (fonction du reel), excludes any simultaneous intuitive activity, since the latter is completely unconcerned with the present, but rather a sixth sense for latent possibilities and therefore must not allow itself to be influenced by existing reality. In the same way, thinking is opposed to feeling, since thinking should not be influenced or deviated from its goals depending on sensory evaluations, just as feeling usually deteriorates in the captivity of too much reflection. These four functions, placed geometrically, form a cross with the axis of rationality at right angles to the axis of irrationality.

The four orienting functions, of course, do not contain everything that is contained in the conscious psyche. Will and memory, for example, are not included there. The reason is that the differentiation of these four orienting functions is, in fact, an empirical sequence of typical differences in functional attitude. There are people in whom the nominal emphasis falls on sensation, on the perception of facts, and elevates it to the only defining and overriding principle. These people are reality oriented, fact oriented, event oriented, and in them intellectual judgment, feeling and intuition recede into the background under the all-encompassing importance of real facts. When the emphasis falls on thinking, the judgment is based on what value should be attributed to the facts in question. And on this meaning will depend the way in which the individual deals with the facts themselves. If feeling turns out to be nominal, then the adaptation of the individual will depend entirely on the sense value that he ascribes to these facts. Finally, if the nominal emphasis falls on intuition, then actual reality is taken into account only to the extent that it appears to harbor possibilities that become the main driving force, regardless of the way in which real things are presented in the present.

Thus, the localization of the nominal accent gives rise to four functional types, which I first encountered in my relationships with people, but did not formulate systematically until much later. In practice, these four types are always combined with the type of attitude, that is, with extraversion or introversion, so that the functions themselves appear in an extraverted or introverted version. This creates a structure of eight descriptive function types. It is obvious that within the framework of an essay it is impossible to present the very psychological specifics of these types and trace their conscious and unconscious manifestations. Therefore, I must refer interested readers to the above study.

The purpose of psychological typology is not to classify people into categories—that in itself would be a rather pointless undertaking. Rather, its purpose is to provide critical psychology with the opportunity to carry out methodical research and presentation of empirical material. First, it is a critical tool for the researcher, who needs points of view and a guideline, if he is to reduce the chaotic excess of individual experience to some sort of order. In this respect, typology can be compared to a trigonometric grid, or better still, to a crystallographic system of axes. Secondly, typology is a great help in understanding the wide variety that takes place among individuals, and it also provides a clue to the fundamental differences in current psychological theories. Last but not least, it is an essential means for determining the "personality equation" of the practical psychologist, who, armed with an accurate knowledge of his differentiated and subordinate functions, can avoid many serious mistakes in working with patients.

The typological system I propose is an attempt, based on practical experience, to provide an explanatory basis and a theoretical framework for the limitless variety that has hitherto prevailed in the formation of psychological concepts. In such a young science as psychology, the limitation of concepts will sooner or later become an inevitable necessity. Psychologists will someday be forced to agree on a set of basic principles to avoid controversial interpretations if psychology is not going to remain an unscientific and random conglomeration of individual opinions.

In 1910, Jung left his post at the Burchholz Clinic (by that time he had become clinical director), accepting more and more patients in his Küsnacht, on the shores of Lake Zurich. At this time, Jung becomes the first president of the International Association for Psychoanalysis and plunges into his in-depth studies of myths, legends, fairy tales in the context of their interaction with the world of psychopathology. Publications appear that quite clearly outline the area of ​​Jung's subsequent life and academic interests. Here, too, the boundary of ideological independence from Freud was more clearly marked in the views of both on the nature of the unconscious psyche. “In parallel, I was collecting material for a book on psychological types. Its purpose was to show the essential difference between my concept and the concepts of Freud and Adler. As a matter of fact, when I began to think about this, the question of types arose before me, because the outlook of a person, his worldview and prejudices are determined and limited by the psychological type. Therefore, the subject of discussion in my book was the relationship of man with the world - with people and with things.

The book "Psychological Types" absorbed Jung's reflections on many philosophical cognitive problems. “It highlights various aspects of consciousness, possible worldview settings, while the human consciousness is considered from the so-called clinical point of view. I processed a lot of literary sources, in particular Spitteler's poems, especially the poem "Prometheus and Epimetheus". But not only. The books of Schiller and Nietzsche, the spiritual history of antiquity and the Middle Ages played a huge role in my work ... In my book I argued that every way of thinking is due to a certain psychological type and that every point of view is in some way relative. At the same time, the question arose about the unity necessary to compensate for this diversity. In other words, I came to Taoism ... It was then that my thoughts and research began to converge towards a certain central concept - the idea of ​​selfhood, self-sufficiency.

However, Jung was deeply disappointed with the way his theory was understood and developed by his followers. He opposed most strongly the understanding and use of his typology as a system of classification, calling it in his preface to the Argentine edition of Psychological Types (1934) division of mankind into brachiocephalic and dolichocephalic.

Observing his patients in the clinic, Jung noticed one feature: "It is well known that hysteria and schizophrenia ... represent a sharp contrast, mainly due to the different attitude of patients to the outside world." This is how he came to the concepts of extraversion and introversion (thus, which outlived their author for a long time): “In my practical medical work with nervous patients, I have long noticed that in addition to many individual differences in human psychology, there are also a number of typical differences. First of all, there are two distinct types, which I have called extraverted and introverted.

It was only towards the end of his life that Jung managed to formulate the goal of creating a typology: “From the very beginning, I did not strive to classify normal or pathological personalities, but rather to discover conceptual means derived from experience, namely, ways and means by which I could express intelligibly way features of the individual psyche and the functional interaction of its elements. Since I was primarily interested in psychotherapy, I have always paid special attention to those individuals who needed an explanation of themselves and knowledge of their fellow men. My fully empirical conceptions were to form a kind of language with which such explanations could be conveyed. In my book on types, I gave a number of examples to illustrate my way of doing things. Classification didn't really interest me. This is a side issue of only indirect significance to the therapist. My book was written in fact to demonstrate the structural and functional aspect of some typical elements of the psyche.

Jung did not put people on the shelves and did not try to hang labels; rather, classification was needed for work in order to intelligibly explain to clients certain aspects of their mental life. That such means of communication and explanation could also be used as a means of classifying was my concern, since an intellectually detached classifying point of view is something the therapist should avoid. But it was the application in the form of classification that became - I say this almost with regret - the first and almost exclusive way in which my book was understood, and everyone wondered why I did not put the description of types right at the beginning of the book, instead of putting it off until last chapter. Obviously, the purpose of my book was not understood correctly, which is easily explained if we take into account that the number of people who would be interested in its practical psychotherapeutic application is relatively small compared to the number of academic students.

The fact that Jung was far from orthodox about his typology often escapes the attention of researchers; moreover, he suggested the possibility of the existence of other criteria: “I do not consider the classification of types according to introversion and extraversion and the four basic functions as the only possible one. Any other psychological criterion can serve no less effectively as a classifier, although, in my opinion, others do not have such extensive practical significance.

All the criteria put by Jung as the basis of his typology were subject to a clear pattern - they were binary oppositions, mutually compensating each other. While one half of the opposition was "strong", clearly conscious - the second, according to Jung, went into the unconscious.

Based on this, Jung received his four main mental functions (thinking, experiencing, feeling, intuition), each of which existed in extraverted or introverted versions.

Further developers of the typology (K. Leonhard; G.Yu. Eysenck; I. Myers and K Briggs; A. Augustinavichute) of Jung, only to some extent correlate with the author's interpretation. In the interpretation of I. Myers, the term "extraversion - introversion" is based on such properties of the human psyche as, firstly, sociability or avoidance of excessive contacts (and in this sense it is close to Eysenck's interpretation), and secondly, activity - passivity. Based on the Myers-Briggs typology, D. Keirsey's test was also created, the first version of which coincided with Myers' interpretation (see the website www.keirsey.com), but the second, revised version, was entirely based on Eysenck's interpretation, i.e. . on the criterion of sociability - lack of sociability.

General description of types

The author introduces two main psychological types: extrovert and introvert. This is the so-called. general attitudes, they differ from each other in the direction of their interest, the movement of libido - towards themselves or towards an object. Jung writes that from a biological point of view, the relationship between subject and object is always a relationship of adaptation, i.e. adaptation. In addition, the extrovert and introvert are subdivided, in accordance with the leading conscious function: thinking, feeling, sensation and intuition. Moreover, Jung refers thinking and feeling to the rational type, and sensations and intuition to the irrational. This can be visualized in Fig.

Fig.1. Functions

Two functions will be conscious, one leading, the second complementary, and two unconscious. A common feature of both rational types is that they are subject to reasonable judgment, i.e. they are associated with evaluations and judgments: thinking evaluates things through cognition, in terms of truth and falsity, it answers the question, what is a given thing? Feeling through emotions, in terms of attractiveness and unattractiveness, answering the question of the value of this thing. As attitudes that determine human behavior, these two fundamental functions are at any given moment mutually exclusive; either one or the other dominates. As a result, some people base their decisions on their feelings rather than their reason. The other two functions, sensation and intuition, Jung calls irrational, because they do not use estimates or judgments, but are based on perceptions that are not judged or interpreted. Sensation perceives things as they are, this is the function of the "real". Sensation tells us that something is. Intuition perceives in the same way, but not so much due to a conscious sensory mechanism, but due to an unconscious ability to internally understand the nature of things. “Intuition is a function with which you can see what is happening “around the corner”, which, in fact, is not possible; but someone seems to be doing it for you.

For example, a feeling type person will note all the details of an event, but will not pay attention to its context, and an intuitive type person will not pay much attention to details, but will easily understand the meaning of what is happening and trace the possible development of these events.

That. eight personality types can be described:

Fig.2. Psychological types.

Extroverts are much more adaptive in society from a social point of view. Jung notes that one cannot put an equal sign between adjustment to circumstances and adjustment, for simply adjustment is the limitation of the normal extraverted type. The danger for this type is also that it can actually dissolve into the object, losing itself. The most common form of this type of neurosis is hysteria. Because his main feature is to constantly make himself interesting and impress others. An unconscious attitude that successfully complements an extrovert will be introverted. Unconscious thoughts, desires, affects of an extravert have a primitive, infantile, egocentric character. And they become stronger the less they are recognized.

Unconscious, K.G. Jung understood differently than Z. Freud. For him, this concept is psychological, and not topo-energetic, it has a compensatory attitude towards consciousness, includes processes that are not currently fixed by consciousness, the so-called. latent, but under certain conditions become conscious.

Conscious non-recognition of unconscious components transforms them from compensatory to destructive ones, thus. there is an internal conflict leading to illness.

So, briefly, the corresponding types according to Jung can be characterized by the following examples.

Extraverted Rational Types

thinking type

The dominant function of thinking in an extravert will belong to the category of objective givens, chained to the object. All life manifestations of this type are dependent on intellectual conclusions, generally accepted ideas and other objective data or facts.

The motto of his life is no exceptions, his ideals are "the purest formula of objective factual reality and therefore they must also be a universally valid truth necessary for the good of mankind." Passions, religion and other irrational forms are generally removed to the point of complete unconsciousness. From my point of view, this type is distinguished by inflexibility of thinking and a certain rigid attitude towards the world. In life, such a person will succeed in the office of an accuser, a reformer, a purifier of conscience. Considering the introverted unconscious attitude, the more it is repressed, the stronger the feelings will influence thinking, the point of view of such a person will become dogmatic-bone. Defending itself against doubt, the conscious attitude becomes fanatical.

Positive thinking of this type will be synthetic, it may well come to new facts or concepts, Jung called it predicative. Thinking becomes negative if another function dominates in consciousness, then it will be pulled in tow behind the dominant function and become rather banal.

Extraverted feeling type

The extraverted feeling type orients itself according to the objectively given. Jung distinguished between positive extraverted feeling and negative. Positive feeling is not deaf to creativity, art, fashion. The negative leads to the fact that the object becomes exaggeratedly significant. This type is most often found in women. Thinking is suppressed, all logical conclusions that will not be consistent with the feelings of this object are rejected. Thus, the unconscious logic of this object is distinguished by a peculiar way of thinking, it is infantile and archaic. Thinking will have a compensatory attitude until feelings go off scale, but the stronger the feeling in consciousness, the stronger the unconscious opposition of thinking will become. The main manifestation of this type of neurosis will be hysteria with its characteristic infantile-sexual world of unconscious ideas.

Summing up, rational extraverted types can be said to be object-oriented, recognize as reasonable what is collectively considered reasonable. However, forgetting that the mind is initially individual and subjective.

The next two types are extraverted irrational types: sensing and intuitive. Their difference from the rational ones is that "they base their entire course of action not on the judgment of reason, but on the absolute power of perception." They are based solely on experience, and the functions of judgment are relegated to the unconscious.

extraverted feeling type

In the extraverted attitude, sensation depends on the object, is determined primarily by the object, its conscious application. Those objects that cause the strongest sensation are decisive, according to Jung, for the psychology of the individual. “Sensation is a vital function endowed with the strongest vital impulse. If an object causes sensation, then it is significant and enters consciousness as an objective process. The subjective side of sensation is delayed or repressed.

A person of the extraverted feeling type accumulates experience about a real object throughout his life, but as a rule does not use it. Sensation underlies his life activity, is a concrete manifestation of his life, his desires are directed to specific pleasures and means for him "the fullness of real life." Reality for him consists in concreteness and reality, and everything that stands above this "is allowed only insofar as they enhance the sensation." All thoughts and feelings coming from within, he always reduces to objective foundations. Even in love, it is based on the sensual charms of the object.

But the more sensation prevails, the more unpleasant this type becomes: he turns "either into a rude seeker of impressions, or into a shameless, refined aesthete."

The most fanatical people are of this type, their religiosity brings them back to wild rituals. Jung noted: “The specifically obsessive (compulsive) character of neurotic symptoms is an unconscious complement to the conscious moral ease inherent in an exclusively sentient attitude, which, from the point of view of rational judgment, perceives everything that happens without choice.”

Extraverted intuitive type.

Intuition in an extraverted setting is not only perception or contemplation, but is an active, creative process that affects the object as much as it does.

One of the functions of intuition is "the transmission of images or visual representations of relationships and circumstances that are either completely incomprehensible with the help of other functions, or can only be achieved on distant, roundabout ways."

The intuitive type, when conveying the reality surrounding it, will try to describe not the factuality of the material, in contrast to the sensation, but to grasp the greatest completeness of events, relying on direct sensory sensation, and not on the sensations themselves.

For the intuitive type, each life situation turns out to be closed, oppressive, and the task of intuition is to find a way out of this vacuum, to try to unlock it.

Another feature of the extraverted intuitive type is that it has a very strong dependence on external situations. But this dependence is peculiar: it is aimed at opportunities, and not at generally recognized values.

This type is directed to the future, he is constantly in search of something new, but as soon as this new one is achieved and no further progress is visible, he immediately loses all interest, becomes indifferent and cold-blooded. In any situation, he intuitively seeks out external possibilities and neither reason nor feeling can keep him, even if the new situation is contrary to his previous beliefs.

More often, these people become the head of someone's undertaking, make the most of all the opportunities, but as a rule, they do not bring the matter to the end. They waste their lives on others, and he himself remains with nothing.

introvert type

The introverted type differs from the extraverted one in that it focuses primarily not on the object, but on subjective data. Between the perception of the object and his own action, he has a subjective opinion, "which prevents the action from taking on a character corresponding to the objectively given."

But this does not mean that the introverted type does not see external conditions. It's just that his consciousness chooses the subjective factor as the decisive one.

Jung calls the subjective factor "that psychological act or that reaction that merges with the influence of the object and thereby gives rise to a new mental act." Criticizing the position of Weininger, who characterized this attitude as selfish or egoistic, he says: “the subjective factor is the second world law, and the one who is based on it has the same true, lasting and meaningful basis as the one who refers to object .... The introverted attitude is based on the everywhere present, extremely real and absolutely inevitable condition of mental adaptation.

Like the extraverted attitude, the introverted one is based on a hereditary psychological structure, which is inherent in every individual from birth.

As we know from the previous chapters, the unconscious attitude is, as it were, a counterbalance to the conscious one, i.e. if in an introvert the ego has taken over the claims of the subject, then as a compensation, an unconscious increase in the influence of the object arises, which in consciousness is expressed in attachment to the object. “The more the ego tries to secure for itself all sorts of freedoms, independence, lack of obligations and all kinds of predominance, the more it falls into slavish dependence on the objectively given.” This can be expressed in financial dependence, moral and others.

Unfamiliar, new objects cause fear and distrust in the introverted type. He is afraid to fall under the power of the object, as a result of which he develops cowardice, which prevents him from defending himself and his opinion.

Introverted Rational Types

Introverted rational types, as well as extraverted ones, are based on the functions of a reasonable judgment, but this judgment is guided mainly by the subjective factor. Here the subjective factor acts as something more valuable than the objective one.

thinking type

Introverted thinking focuses on the subjective factor, i.e. has such an internal orientation, which ultimately determines the judgment.

External factors are not the cause and purpose of this thinking. It starts in the subject and leads back to the subject. Real, objective facts are of secondary importance, and the main thing for this type is the development and presentation of the subjective idea. Such a strong lack of objective facts is compensated, according to Jung, by an abundance of unconscious facts, unconscious fantasies, which, in turn, “are enriched with a multitude of archaically formed facts, pandemoniums (hell, abode of demons) of magical and irrational quantities that take on special faces, depending on the nature of that function, which, before others, replaces the function of thinking as the bearer of life.

Unlike the extraverted thinking type, which operates on facts, the introverted type refers to subjective factors. He is influenced by ideas which flow, not from an objective given, but from a subjective basis. Such a person will follow his ideas, but not focusing on the object, but focusing on the inner basis.

He strives to deepen, not expand. The object for him will never have a high price and in the worst case he will be surrounded by unnecessary precautions.

This type of person is silent, and when he speaks, he often comes across people who do not understand him. If by chance one day he is understood, "then he falls into gullible overestimation." In the family, he more often becomes a victim of ambitious women who know how to exploit, or he remains a bachelor "with the heart of a child."

The introverted person loves solitude and thinks that solitude will protect him from unconscious influences. However, this leads him even further into conflict, which exhausts him internally.

introverted feeling type

Like thinking, introverted feeling is basically determined by the subjective factor. According to Jung, feeling has a negative character and its external manifestation goes in a negative, negative sense. He's writing:

"The introverted feeling does not try to adapt itself to the objective, but to place itself above it, for which it unconsciously tries to realize the images lying in it." People of this type are usually silent and difficult to reach.

In a conflict situation, feeling manifests itself in the form of negative judgments, or in complete indifference to the situation.

According to Jung, the introverted feeling type is found mainly among women. He characterizes them as follows: "... they are silent, hard to reach, incomprehensible, often hidden under a childish or banal mask, often also distinguished by a melancholy character."

Although outwardly such a person looks like a completely self-confident, peaceful and calm, but his true motives in most cases remain hidden. His coldness and restraint is superficial, and true feeling develops in depth.

Under normal conditions, this type acquires a certain mysterious power that can charm an extroverted man, because. it affects his unconscious. But with accentuation, "a type of woman is formed, known in an unfavorable sense for her shameless ambition and insidious cruelty."

Introverted irrational types

Irrational types are much more difficult to analyze, due to their less ability to detect. Their main activity is inward, not outward. As a result, their achievements are of little value, and all their aspirations are chained to a wealth of subjective events. People of this attitude are the engines of their culture and upbringing. They perceive not words as such, but the whole environment as a whole, which shows him the life of the people around him.

Sensing introverted type

Feeling in an introverted setting is subjective, because next to the object that is felt stands the subject that feels and which "brings a subjective disposition to the objective stimulus." This type is most often found among artists. Sometimes the determinant of the subjective factor becomes so strong that it suppresses the objective influences. In this case, the function of the object is reduced to the role of a simple stimulus, and the subject, who perceives the same things, does not stop at the pure effect of the object, but is engaged in subjective perception, which is caused by objective irritation.

In other words, a person of the introverted feeling type conveys an image that does not reproduce the external side of the object, but processes it in accordance with his subjective experience and reproduces it in accordance with it.

The introverted feeling type is irrational, because he makes a choice from what is happening not on the basis of reasonable judgments, but on the basis of what exactly is happening at this moment.

Outwardly, this type gives the impression of a calm, passive person with reasonable self-control. This is due to its non-correlation with the object. But inside this person is a philosopher who asks himself questions about the meaning of life, the purpose of a person, and so on. Jung believes that if a person does not have the artistic ability of expression, then all impressions go inward and keep consciousness captive.

It takes a lot of work for him to convey an objective understanding to other people, and he treats himself without any understanding. Developing, he moves farther and farther away from the object and passes into the world of subjective perceptions, which transfer him to the world of mythology and conjectures. Although this fact remains unconscious to him, it influences his judgments and actions.

His unconscious side is distinguished by the repression of intuition, which is fundamentally different from the intuition of the extraverted type. For example, a person of an extraverted attitude is distinguished by resourcefulness, a good instinct, and an introverted one by the ability to "sniff out everything ambiguous, dark, dirty and dangerous in the background of activity."

introverted intuitive type

Intuition in an introverted attitude is directed to internal objects, which are presented as subjective images. These images are not found in external experience, but are the content of the unconscious. According to Jung, they are the content of the collective unconscious, therefore, they are not accessible to ontogenetic experience. A person of an introverted intuitive type, having received irritation from an external object, does not stop at the perceived, but tries to determine what was caused by the external inside the object. Intuition goes beyond the sensation, it seems to be trying to look further, beyond the sensation, and perceive the inner image caused by the sensation.

The difference between the extraverted intuitive type and the introverted one is that the former expresses indifference towards external objects, and the latter towards internal ones; the first senses new possibilities and moves from object to object, the second passes from image to image, seeking new conclusions and possibilities.

Another feature of the introverted intuitive type is that it captures those images "which arise from the foundations of the unconscious spirit." Here Jung is referring to the collective unconscious, i.e. what is “... archetypes, the innermost essence of which is inaccessible to experience, is a sediment of mental functioning in a number of ancestors, i.e. they are experiences of organic being, in general, accumulated by millions of repetitions and condensed into types.

According to Jung, the person who is an introverted intuitive type is a mystic-dreamer and visionary, on the one hand, a dreamer and an artist, on the other hand. The deepening of intuition causes the individual to move away from tangible reality, so that he becomes completely incomprehensible even to those closest to him. If this type begins to think about the meaning of life, what he represents and his value in the world, then he faces a moral problem, which is not limited to contemplation alone.

The introverted intuitive most of all represses the sensations of the object, because "in his unconscious there is a compensating extraverted function of sensation, which is distinguished by an archaic character." But with the actualization of the conscious attitude, complete subordination to internal perception occurs. Then there are obsessive feelings of attachment to the object, which resist the conscious attitude.

Literature

1. Carl Jung. Memories, dreams, reflections. Origin of my writings.
2. Jung K.G. Psychological types. SPB., "Azbuka", 2001, 736 p. See also: Four works on psychological typology).
3. A.M.Elyashevich, D.A.Lytov April 2004 - August 2005, St. Petersburg. Published: "Socionics, mentology and personality psychology", 2005, No. 3;
4. Myers I.B., Myers P. Gifts Differentiating. Consulting Psychologists Press, no year (1956).
5. Keirsey D. Please Understand Me II. Character - Temperament - Intelligence. Gnosology Books Ltd., 2000.

We invite the reader to get acquainted with the main provisions of the work of the Swiss psychologist Carl Gustav Jung "Psychological Types" and the possibilities of its use in modern practical psychology. The first part of the article provides a brief analysis of the chapters of this book by C. G. Jung. The second part presents some of the applications of the theory of psychological types in our day, illustrated by examples.

The quintessence of C. G. Jung's theory of psychological types

In the course of his medical practice, Carl Jung drew attention to the fact that patients differed not only in many individual psychological characteristics, but also in typical features. As a result of the study, scientists identified two main types: extraverted and introverted. This separation is due to the fact that in the process of life of some people their attention and interest were more directed to an external object, outside, while others - to their inner life, that is, the subject was a priority.

However, Jung warned that in its pure form, one or the second type is almost impossible to meet, since this can be a great hindrance to social adaptation. This implies the idea of ​​the existence of mixed types that arise as a result of compensation for the one-sidedness of one type of personality, but with a predominance of extraversion or introversion in it. As a result of this compensation, secondary characters and types appear that complicate the definition of a person as extraverted or introverted. Even more confusing is the individual psychological reaction. Therefore, in order to more accurately determine the prevailing extraversion or introversion, extreme care and consistency must be observed.

Jung emphasizes that the division of people into two main psychological types was made long ago by "experts in human nature and reflected by deep thinkers, in particular Goethe" and has become a generally accepted fact. But different prominent personalities described this division in different ways, based on their own feelings. Regardless of the individual interpretation, one thing remained common: those whose attention was directed and dependent on the object, turning away from the subject, that is, themselves, and those whose attention was torn away from the object and directed towards the subject, its mental processes, that is, turned to his inner world.

C. G. Jung notes that any person is characterized by both of these mechanisms, with a greater severity of one or the second. Their integration is the natural rhythm of life, similar to the function of breathing. And yet the difficult circumstances in which most people find themselves, and the external social environment, and internal discord rarely allow these two types to coexist harmoniously within one or another person. Therefore, there is an advantage either in one direction or in the other. And when one or the other mechanism begins to dominate, the formation of an extraverted or introverted type occurs.

After a general introduction, Jung explores the history of mental type identification, from ancient times to his own detailed description of the extraverted and introverted types. In the first chapter, Jung analyzes the problem of mental types in ancient and medieval thought. In the first section of this chapter, he draws a comparison between the ancient Gnostics and the early Christians Tertullian and Origen, in order to show by their example that one was an introverted type of personality, and the other an extraverted type of personality. Jung notes that the Gnostics proposed a division of people into three types of character, where in the first case thinking (pneumatic) prevailed, in the second - feeling (psychic), in the third - sensation (gilik).

Revealing Tertullian's personality type, Jung points out that in his commitment to Christianity, he sacrificed what was his most valuable asset - his highly developed intellect, his desire for knowledge; in order to concentrate completely on the inner religious feeling, on his soul, he abandoned his mind. Origen, on the contrary, introducing Gnosticism into Christianity in a mild form, strove for external knowledge, for science, and in order to free the intellect on this path, he performed self-castration, thereby removing the obstacle in the form of sensuality. Jung sums up by arguing that Tertullian was a clear example of an introvert, and a conscious one, because in order to focus on the spiritual life, he abandoned his brilliant mind. Origen, in order to devote himself to science and the development of his intellect, sacrificed what was most expressed in him - his sensuality, that is, he was an extrovert, his attention was directed outward, to knowledge.

In the second section of the first chapter, Jung examines the theological disputes in the early Christian church in order to show by the example of the opposition of the Ebionites, who claimed that the Son of Man had a human nature, and the docets, who defended the point of view that the Son of God only had the appearance of flesh, belonging of some to extroverts, the second - to introverts, in the context of their worldview. The intensity of these disputes led to the fact that the former began to put human sensory perception directed outward at the forefront, the latter began to consider the abstract, extraterrestrial as the main value.

In the third section of the first chapter, Jung considers psychotypes in the light of the problem of transubstantiation, relevant to the middle of the 9th century AD. Again, he takes two opposing sides for analysis: one - in the person of Paskhazy Radbert, the abbot of the monastery, who claimed that during the rite of the sacrament, wine and bread turn into the flesh and blood of the Son of Man, the second - in the person of the great thinker - Scotus Erigena, who did not want to accept the general opinion, defending his point of view, the "inventions" of his cold mind. Without belittling the significance of this sacred Christian ritual, he argued that the sacrament is a memory of the last supper. Rudbert's statement received universal recognition and brought him popularity, because he, without a deep mind, was able to feel the trends of his environment and give the great Christian symbol a rough sensual coloring, so Jung points out to us the clearly expressed features of extraversion in his behavior. Scott Erigen, having an extraordinary mind, which he was able to show, defending a point of view based only on personal conviction, on the contrary, met a storm of indignation; unable to feel into the trends of his environment, he was killed by the monks of the monastery in which he lived. C. G. Jung refers to him as an introversive type.

In the fourth section of the first chapter, Jung, continuing his study of the extraverted and introverted types, compares two opposite camps: nominalism (bright representatives - Atisthenes and Diogenes) and realism (leader - Plato). The beliefs of the former were based on the attribution of universals (generic concepts), such as goodness, man, beauty, etc. to ordinary words, behind which there is nothing, that is, they were nominalized. And the latter, on the contrary, gave each word spirituality, a separate existence, asserting the abstractness, the reality of the idea.

In the fifth section of the first chapter, developing his thought, Jung examines the religious dispute between Luther and Zwingi about the sacrament, noting the opposite of their judgments: for Luther, the sensual perception of the rite was important, for Zwingli, spirituality, the symbolism of the sacrament, had priority.

In the second chapter of "Schiller's Ideas on the Problem of Types", C. G. Jung relies on the work of F. Schiller, whom he considers one of the first who resorts to the analysis of these two types, linking them with the concepts of "sensation" and "thinking". Noting, however, that this analysis bears the imprint of Schiller's own introverted type. Jung contrasts Schiller's introversion with Goethe's extraversion. In parallel, Jung reflects on the possibility of an introverted and extraverted interpretation of the meaning of the universal "culture". The scientist analyzes Schiller's article "On the Aesthetic Education of Man", arguing with the author, discovering the origins of his intellectual constructions in his feeling, describing the struggle between the poet and the thinker in it. Jung is attracted by Schiller's work primarily as a philosophical and psychological reflection that raises questions and problems of a psychological nature, albeit in Schiller's terminology. Of great importance for understanding Jung's theory are his arguments about the symbol in Schiller as a middle state, a compromise between opposing conscious and unconscious motives.

Further, Jung considers the division of poets by Schiller into naive and sentimental and comes to the conclusion that we have a classification based on the creative features of poets and the features of their works, which cannot be projected onto the doctrine of personality types. Jung dwells on naive and sentimental poetry as examples of the action of typical mechanisms, the specifics of the relationship to the object. Since Schiller proceeds directly from typical mechanisms to mental types similar to those of Jung, the scientist states that Schiller singles out two types that have all the features of extraverted and introverted.

Continuing his research, in the third chapter, C. G. Jung examines the work of the German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche in the light of the latter's vision of the division into psychotypes. And if Schiller called his pair of typical opposites idealistic-realistic, then Nietzsche calls it Apollonian-Dionysian. The term - Dionysian - owes its origin to Dionysus - a character of ancient Greek mythology, half a god, half a goat. Nietzsche's description of this Dionysian type coincides with the characterological feature of this character.

Thus, the name "Dionysian" symbolizes the freedom of unlimited animal desire, the collective comes to the fore here, the individual - to the background, the creative power of the libido, expressed in the form of attraction, captures the individual as an object and uses it as a tool or expression. The term "Apollonian" comes from the name of the ancient Greek god of light Apollo and conveys, in the interpretation of Nietzsche, a sense of the inner silhouettes of beauty, measure and feelings that obey the laws of proportions. Identification with a dream clearly focuses on the property of the Apollonian state: it is a state of introspection, a state of observation directed inward, a state of introversion.

Nietzsche's consideration of types is on the aesthetic plane, and Jung calls this "partial consideration" of the problem. However, according to Jung, Nietzsche, like no one before him, came closer to understanding the unconscious mechanisms of the psyche, the motives underlying the opposing principles.

Further - in the fourth chapter "The Problem of Types in Human Science" - Jung studies the work of Furno Jordan "Character from the point of view of the body and human genealogy", in which the author examines in detail the psychotypes of introverts and extroverts, using his own terminology. Jung criticizes Jordan's position on the use of activity as the main criterion for distinguishing types.

The fifth chapter is devoted to the problem of types in poetry. Based on the images of Prometheus and Epimetheus in the poetry of Karl Spitteler, the scientist notes that the conflict between these two characters expresses, first of all, the confrontation between introverted and extraverted variants of development in the same person; however, the poetic creation embodies these two directions in two separate figures and their typical destinies. Jung compares the images of Prometheus in Goethe and Spitteler. Reflecting in this chapter on the meaning of the unifying symbol, Jung notes that poets are able to "read in the collective unconscious." In addition to the contemporary cultural interpretation of the symbol and spirit of opposites, Jung also dwells on the ancient Chinese and Brahminist understanding of opposites and the unifying symbol.

Further, Jung considers psychotypes from the position of psychopathology (chapter six). For research, he chooses the work of psychiatrist Otto Gross "Secondary cerebral function". K. G. Jung notes that in the presence of mental abnormalities, it is much easier to identify the psychotype, because they are a magnifying glass in this process.

Then the scientist turns to aesthetics (seventh chapter). Here he relies on the works of Worringer, who introduces the terms "empathy" and "abstraction", which, as well as possible, characterize the extraverted and introverted type. Empathy feels the object to a certain extent empty and for this reason can fill it with its life. On the contrary, abstraction sees the object as alive and functioning to a certain extent, and because of this tries to avoid its impact.

In the eighth chapter of his work, Jung proceeds to consider psychotypes from the point of view of modern philosophy. For research, he chooses the position of the representative of pragmatic philosophy, William James. He divides all philosophers into two types: rationalists and empiricists. In his opinion, a rationalist is a sensitive person, an empiricist is a rigid personality. If free will is important to the first, then the second is subject to fatalism. Asserting something, the rationalist imperceptibly plunges into dogmatism, while the empiricist, on the contrary, adheres to skeptical views.

In the ninth chapter, Jung turns to such a science as biography, in particular the work of the German scientist Wilhelm Ostwald. Compiling biographies of scientists, Ostwald discovers the opposite of types, and gives them the name of the classical type and the romantic type. The first type indicated tries to improve his work as much as possible, therefore he works slowly, he does not have a significant impact on the environment, as he is afraid to make a mistake in front of the public. The second type - classical - exhibits absolutely opposite properties. It is characteristic of him that his activities are varied and numerous, the result of which is a large number of successive works, and he has a significant and strong influence on his fellow tribesmen. Ostwald notes that it is precisely the high speed of mental reaction that is a sign of a romantic and distinguishes him from a slow classic.

And finally, in the tenth chapter of this work, C. G. Jung gives his "general description of types." Jung describes each type in a certain strict sequence. First, in the context of the general setting of consciousness, then, in the context of the setting of the unconscious, after - taking into account the characteristics of the main psychological functions, such as thinking, feelings, sensations, intuition. And on this basis, he also identifies eight subtypes. Four for each main type. The thinking and feeling subtypes, according to Jung, are rational, the sensing and intuitive subtypes are irrational, regardless of whether we are talking about an extrovert or an introvert.

Practical application of the concept of K. Jung's psychotypes today

Today, it will not be difficult for a psychologist to determine the main type of personality. The main use of this work of Jung is career guidance. Indeed, if a person is closed and does everything slowly, for example, as a seller in a trading floor with high traffic, as well as in general, it is better for him not to work as a seller. Since this profession involves a large number of contacts during the day, and not always comfortable, which can greatly undermine the psychological health of an introvert. Yes, and the effectiveness of such activities will be low. If, on the contrary, a person belongs to the main extrovert type, he can safely choose activities associated with a large number of personal contacts, including as a leader - manager or director.

This theory is also used in family psychology. Moreover, at the stage of family planning. Since, if a couple, for example, consists of a typical extrovert or a typical introvert, the life of such a marriage will be short-lived. After all, if the wife wants to focus on her husband, limiting his extra-work communication, being the most introverted person, and the husband, on the contrary, being a typical extrovert, will have a need for a large number of guests in their house or the desire to often be in the company of friends, this can serve the cause of discord, and possibly divorce. But, since psychotypes with the most prevailing one typical setting are quite rare, it is possible to choose a partner who, even being an extrovert, will be able to pay enough attention to a life partner and have a not particularly pronounced need for frequent friendly contacts.

Literature:

1. Jung KG Psychological types. M., 1998.
2. Babosov E.M. Carl Gustav Jung. Minsk, 2009.
3. Leybin V. Analytical psychology and psychotherapy. St. Petersburg, 2001.
4. Khnykina A. Why is Jung a genius? 5 main discoveries of a psychiatrist // Arguments and facts -26/07/15.

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11.05.2016 10:28

Carl Gustav Jung, a student and associate of Sigmund Freud, had an extensive psychiatric practice for almost sixty years. He observed people a lot and became convinced that the structure of the psyche that Freud described does not manifest itself in the same way. People perceive reality differently.

Summarizing and systematizing observations, his own and those of his students, Jung described eight psychological types. His work formed the basis of the book Psychological Types, which was published in 1921. From Jung's point of view, each person has individual traits and traits inherent in one of the psychological types. The psychological type manifests itself in early childhood and almost does not change during life, although as it grows older it can be smoothed out. It is worth emphasizing that the typology does not limit the freedom of choice of a person, is not an obstacle to a career or love, does not hinder its development. This is a kind of framework, the structure of personality. It does not negate the diversity of characters and individuality of a person, ideas about good and evil, his personal life experience, his own thoughts, cultural level. Jung's theory helps to understand how people perceive the world.

Jung introduced new concepts into science - extraversion and introversion.

An extrovert is focused on the outside world. An introvert draws strength from within. There are no pure extroverts and introverts in the world. Each person is just inclined to one or another perception of the world, sometimes behaves differently at home and at work. Extroverts are more active than introverts. They are comfortable in today's free market society. They strive for status, awards, achievements, superiority, relax and draw strength in the company of friends. Negative manifestations of extraversion - selfishness, arrogance, willfulness. Since extroverts tend to lead, relationships develop better in a pair where a man is an extrovert in his psychological type, and a woman is an introvert.

Introverts are no better or worse than extroverts. They have their own weaknesses and advantages. Introverts recuperate by immersing themselves in their own inner world. In order to successfully interact with the external world that is difficult for them, they purposefully focus on its individual aspects. Introverts are good strategists, thoughtful and reasonable. They are able to see the situation deeper and further. Unlike introverts, extroverts are tacticians and strive to win here and now. Negative manifestations of introversion - wandering in the clouds, unwillingness to monitor their appearance, inability to express their thoughts.

But back to Jung's theory. The next concept that belongs to him is psychological functions. According to the scientist's observations, some people operate well with logical data, while others cope better with emotional information. There are people with great intuition, and people who have better developed sensations. The four basic psychological functions, according to Jung, are thinking, feeling, intuition, sensation.

Thinking helps a person to establish conceptual connections between the content of his ideas. In the process of thinking, he is guided by objective criteria, logic. Feelings, on the contrary, are based on the assessment of representations: good or bad, beautiful or ugly. The next psychological function is intuition. It is connected with the unconscious perception of what is happening, instincts. The fourth psychological function - sensations, which are based on physical stimuli caused by specific facts. Every person has all four psychological functions. They help him build a unified picture of the world. Functions are developed differently. As a rule, one dominates over the others.

Depending on the predominance of the function, Jung first identified types: thinking, feeling, intuitive, sensing. He further divided psychological functions into two classes: rational functions - thinking and feeling, irrational - intuition and sensation. Functions also form alternative pairs: feeling and thinking, intuition and sensation. The scientist argued, for example, that feelings suppress thinking, and thinking can interfere with feeling.

Rational functions Jung called reasonable, because they are focused on objective values ​​and norms accumulated and accepted in society. Irrational behavior, from the scientist's point of view, is behavior that is not based on reason. These psychological functions are neither bad nor good. In dealing with all sorts of situations, both rational and irrational approaches can be important. Jung noted that sometimes an excessive focus on a reasonable resolution of the conflict can prevent you from finding an answer on an irrational level.

Jung analyzed each of the psychological functions from the standpoint of extraversion and introversion and defined eight psychological types. Extroverts and introverts are rational and irrational. Rational extroverts and rational introverts, in turn, meet thinking and feeling. Irrational extroverts and irrational introverts are sentient and intuitive.

Most clearly, the psychological type is manifested in relationships. Usually happy couples, ideal friends and colleagues are people who complement each other. Two introverts can wait for initiative from a partner and not wait. Two extroverts are not able to get along or work together because they are too enterprising, each pulling the blanket over himself. A person will be more successful in the field of activity that is inherent in his psychological type, but nothing prevents him from developing in himself other qualities necessary in work, in public or in his personal life.

Knowing your psychological type will help you understand your predisposition, actively use your strengths and find ways to compensate for weaknesses. There are times when the type of person is very blurred, but this is rather an exception.

If you cannot independently determine your psychological type, most likely you simply do not have enough information or you do not want to be honest with yourself. Contact a professional psychologist who will test you and give you the recommendations you need to resolve life situations, self-development and achieve goals.