Words with different stylistic coloring are examples. Stylistic synonyms
Functionally stylistically colored vocabulary includes, first of all, words that are most or exclusively used in a particular speech sphere corresponding to one of the functional styles. The tradition of use, attachment to a certain situation and the purpose of communication lead to the appearance of functional and stylistic coloring in these words. From the functional-stylistic point of view, such types of stylistic coloration as book and colloquial can be distinguished, which stand out against the background of neutral, stylistically uncolored units.
In each type of speech, words characteristic of it are used, which have an appropriate stylistic coloring. And only neutral words are used everywhere, in all its varieties, since they have zero stylistic coloring. And they form the basis, the background of any speech. If we take neutral words as a starting point, then bookish words will turn out to be higher than neutral ones, since they elevate the style of presentation, give it a bookish and even high color, and colloquial (and colloquial) words will be lower than neutral ones - they reduce style, give a reduced speech and often rough coloring:
(high color)
Neutral words
(zero color)
Conversational
(reduced color)
For example, girl is a word that can be used in any speech, it is neutral; the maiden is bookish, tall, characteristic of book contexts, and the maid has a clearly reduced coloration - colloquial and even vernacular.
Book words, in contrast to neutral and colloquial ones, have a stylistic coloration that elevates the style of presentation. These are words that are used exclusively in the writing and book field; their introduction into colloquial speech gives it a tinge of bookishness. In the book vocabulary there is a layer of words with the coloring "bookish" and layers of words with a double coloring: "bookish and official-business", "bookish and scientific", "bookish and journalistic", "bookish and poetic". At the same time, the book vocabulary can have various types of expressive and emotional coloring. Book words are associated with the sphere of intellectual communication (dissent, immanent, nihilism, level out). A significant part of them are left by borrowed words (sarcasm, phenomenon, extreme, dominant, skepticism), as well as words of Church Slavonic origin (reverent, beneficence, retaliate, exalt, lover of power, overthrow, clergyman).
Examples of book vocabulary: analogy, anomalous, antipode, apologist, apotheosis, aspect, association, vandalism, vassal, variation, persecution, statehood, disorientation, declarative, like-mindedness, for, isolation, impulse, etc. In part, this category of words is close to general scientific vocabulary, and partly common.
Colloquial vocabulary are words that, being literary, give speech a colloquial character. These are words used by people who know the literary language, in a relaxed atmosphere, in the field of informal communication. When introduced into literary speech, they violate the unity of style. Examples: gasp, joke around, mess around, chase, shatter, fidgety, grumbling, waddling, cry, dress up, inventor, reveler, flu, cheap, snide, greedy, hitch, milk sucker, mischievous, snapped up, play with, play around get sick, cartoon, calm down, physiognomy, etc.
The difference in stylistic coloring in the vocabulary of the book and the colloquial is more noticeable when comparing synonyms (where they exist) against the background of neutral vocabulary.
The vocabulary of the colloquial style color (characteristic at the same time, predominantly of the oral form of the everyday sphere of communication) is correlated with the colloquial-everyday functional style and has its color.
Book words are inappropriate in a casual conversation: "The first leaves appeared on the green spaces", "We walked in the forest and sunbathed by the reservoir." Faced with such a mixture of styles, we are in a hurry to replace foreign words with their commonly used synonyms (not green spaces, but trees, bushes; not a forest, but a forest; not a pond, but a lake).
Colloquial, and even more vernacular, that is, those outside the literary norm, words cannot be used in a conversation with a person with whom we are associated with official relations, or in an official setting.
The use of stylistically colored words should be motivated. Depending on the content of speech, its style, on the environment in which the word is born, and even on how the speakers relate to each other (with sympathy or dislike), they use different words.
High vocabulary is necessary when they talk about something important, significant. This vocabulary finds application in the speeches of orators, in poetic speech, where a solemn, pathetic tone is justified. But if, for example, you are thirsty, it would not occur to you on this occasion to turn to a comrade with a tirade: “O my unforgettable comrade-in-arms and friend! Quench my thirst with life-giving moisture! "
If words that have one or another stylistic connotation are used ineptly, they give the speech a comic sound.
What is the stylistic coloration of words?
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- There are usually four main levels in the language: phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic. The linguistic units of each of these levels can be either stylistically neutral or stylistically colored. In this case, only units of the lexical level are considered.
The stylistic coloring of a linguistic unit is understood as additional (connotative) emotional-evaluative, expressive and functional properties to its main (nominative, subject-logical and grammatical) meaning. These properties limit the use of language units to certain spheres, styles, genres and conditions of communication (situation) and thereby carry stylistic information. Stylistically colored units cannot be used everywhere, but only under certain conditions.
There are two types of stylistic coloration: functional-stylistic and emotional-evaluative. Let's consider them in more detail.
1. Functional and stylistic (style) coloring. It is due to the regular use of a particular unit of language in a certain functional style of the language. This leads to the fact that the very given unit of language (word, etc.) receives a color, an imprint of the sphere or style in which it usually occurs, that is, the word bears the color of a business, official, scientific, journalistic etc. speech (for example: social - journalistic, synchrophasotron - scientific, debit - business).
2. Emotional and evaluative (stylistic) coloring. If the functional-stylistic coloration paints the word itself as a linguistic unit, then with the help of words with emotional-evaluative coloration, the designated objects themselves are "colored", the attitude towards them is expressed, their assessment is made, etc. This coloration is organically characteristic of the linguistic unit, it is inseparable from its meaning. It manifests itself in any area of use of this unit, in the most minimal contexts and even in isolation. So, the words have a reduced (negative) coloration: liposhlep - a person with large pendulous lips and an incomprehensible speaker; mischievous - an idler who loves to play pranks; smack - kiss.
On the other hand, we find a sublime (positive) coloration in the words: banner - banner; future - coming, future; soar - to strive for lofty thoughts, feelings.
Words with an emotional and evaluative coloring are sometimes very difficult to translate into other (even related) languages, since they often have a bright national flavor. So, almost never difficulties arise when translating a neutral verb to fall, for example, in a sentence: he stumbled and fell into the mud. But the translation in the same sentence of a number of his emotionally evaluative synonyms (plop, plump, plop, bryak, etc.) causes certain difficulties and is far from always equal. The same is the case with the translation of two sentences that are very close in meaning: I really wanted to call her all day and I was tempted to call her all day.
Words are stylistically unequal. Some are perceived as bookish (intelligence, ratification, excessive, investment, conversion, prevail), others as colloquial (real, blurt out, a little); some give the speech solemnity (predestined, expression of will), others sound at ease (work, talk, old, cold). All the variety of meanings, functions and semantic nuances of the word is concentrated and combined in its stylistic characteristics, - wrote Acad. V.V. VinogradovVinogradov V.V. Russian language (Grammatical doctrine of the word). P. 22 .. When words stylistic characteristics of a word are taken into account, firstly, its belonging to one of the functional styles or the lack of functional and stylistic fixation, and secondly, the emotional coloring of the word, its expressive capabilities. - Words are stylistically unequal. Some are perceived as bookish (intelligence, ratification, excessive, investment, conversion, prevail), others as colloquial (real, blurt out, a little); some give the speech solemnity (predestined, expression of will), others sound at ease (work, talk, old, cold). All the variety of meanings, functions and semantic nuances of the word is concentrated and combined in its stylistic characteristics, - wrote Acad. V.V. VinogradovVinogradov V.V. Russian language (Grammatical doctrine of the word). P. 22 .. When words stylistic characteristics of a word are taken into account, firstly, its belonging to one of the functional styles or the lack of functional and stylistic fixation, and secondly, the emotional coloring of the word, its expressive capabilities.
- The stylistic coloring of prepositions and conjunctions largely depends on the history of their origin. So, primitive prepositions в, на, к, о and conjunctions a, and, or, but, as a rule, are stylistically neutral and are used in any functional style. Otmennye, verbal and some adverbial prepositions (relatively, according to, accordingly, respectively, obliquely) are characteristic of scientific, official-business and journalistic speech.
Among the pretexts that have become widespread in recent years in book styles are: in business, along the line, at the expense, in part, in favor, in the field, in the sense, from the outside, in accompaniment, and others.
The variety of allied forms is reflected by the variety of their stylistic meanings: but, or, what - neutral; due to the fact that, due to the fact that, due to the fact that - bookish; in the meantime, good, if - conversational; as long as, if - vernacular. - There are usually four main levels in the language: phonetic, morphological, lexical, syntactic. The linguistic units of each of these levels can be either stylistically neutral or stylistically colored. In this case, only units of the lexical level are considered.
The stylistic coloring of a linguistic unit is understood as additional (connotative) emotional-evaluative, expressive and functional properties to its main (nominative, subject-logical and grammatical) meaning. These properties limit the use of language units to certain spheres, styles, genres and conditions of communication (situation) and thereby carry stylistic information. Stylistically colored units cannot be used everywhere, but only under certain conditions.
There are two types of stylistic coloration: functional-stylistic and emotional-evaluative. Let's consider them in more detail.
1. Functional and stylistic (style) coloring. It is due to the regular use of a particular unit of language in a certain functional style of the language. This leads to the fact that the very given unit of language (word, etc.) receives a color, an imprint of the sphere or style in which it usually occurs, that is, the word bears the color of a business, official, scientific, journalistic etc. speech (for example: social - journalistic, synchrophasotron - scientific, debit - business).
2. Emotional and evaluative (stylistic) coloring. If the functional-stylistic coloration paints the word itself as a linguistic unit, then with the help of words with emotional-evaluative coloration, the designated objects themselves are "colored", the attitude towards them is expressed, their assessment is made, etc. This coloration is organically characteristic of the linguistic unit, it is inseparable from its meaning. It manifests itself in any area of use of this unit, in the most minimal contexts and even in isolation. So, the words have a reduced (negative) coloration: liposhlep - a person with large pendulous lips and an incomprehensible speaker; mischievous - an idler who loves to play pranks; smack - kiss.
On the other hand, we find a sublime (positive) coloration in the words: banner - banner; future - coming, future; soar - to strive for lofty thoughts, feelings.
Words with an emotional and evaluative coloring are sometimes very difficult to translate into other (even related) languages, since they often have a bright national flavor. So, almost never difficulties arise when translating a neutral verb to fall, for example, in a sentence: he stumbled and fell into the mud. But the translation in the same sentence of a number of his emotionally evaluative synonyms (plop, plump, plop, bryak, etc.) causes certain difficulties and is far from always equal. The same is the case with the translation of two sentences that are very close in meaning: I really wanted to call her all day and I was tempted to call her all day.
Words are stylistically unequal. Some are perceived as bookish ( intelligence, ratification, excessive, investment, conversion, prevail), others - as colloquial ( real, blurt out, a little); some give the speech solemnity ( preordain, will), others sound casual ( work, talk, old, cold). “All the variety of meanings, functions and semantic nuances of a word is concentrated and united in its stylistic characteristics,” wrote Acad. V.V. Vinogradov. When the stylistic characteristics of the word are taken into account, firstly, its belonging to one of the functional styles or the lack of functional and stylistic fixation, and secondly, the emotional coloring of the word, its expressive capabilities.
The stylistic characteristic of a word is determined by how it is perceived by the speakers: as assigned to a certain functional style or as appropriate in any style, common. The stylistic fixation of the word is facilitated by its thematic relevance. We feel the connection of word-terms with the scientific language ( quantum theory, assonance, attributive); we refer to the journalistic style as words related to political topics ( world, congress, summit, international, law and order, personnel policy); we single out as official business words used in office work ( following, proper, victim, residence, notify, prescribe, forwarded).
In the most general terms, the functional-style layering of vocabulary can be depicted as follows:
Book and colloquial words are most clearly contrasted (cf .: intrude - get in, meddle in; get rid - get rid of, get rid of; criminal - gangster).
Many words not only name concepts, but also reflect the speaker's attitude towards them. For example, admiring the beauty of a white flower, you can call it snow-white, whitish, lily... These adjectives are emotionally charged: the positive assessment they contain distinguishes them from the stylistically neutral word white. The emotional coloring of a word can also express a negative assessment of the called concept (blond). Therefore, emotional vocabulary is called evaluative ( emotionally evaluative). However, it should be noted that the concepts of emotional words (for example, interjections) do not contain evaluation; at the same time, words in which the assessment is their very lexical meaning (and the assessment is not emotional, but intellectual) do not belong to emotional vocabulary ( bad, good, anger, joy, love, approve).
A feature of the emotional-evaluative vocabulary is that the emotional coloring is "superimposed" on the lexical meaning of the word, but is not reduced to it, the purely nominative function is complicated here by evaluativeness, the speaker's attitude to the named phenomenon.
In the composition of emotional vocabulary, the following three types can be distinguished. 1. Words with a vivid evaluative meaning, as a rule, are unambiguous; "The assessment in their meaning is so clearly and definitely expressed that it does not allow the word to be used in other meanings." These include the words "characteristics" ( forerunner, herald, grouch, chatterbox, sycophant, slob etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action ( purpose, predestination, fiddling, deceit, wondrous, miraculous, irresponsible, antediluvian, dare, inspire, defame, defile). 2. Polysemous words, usually neutral in their basic meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, they say about a person: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow; verbs are used figuratively: sing, hiss, nag, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink and under. 3. Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feeling: concluding positive emotions - son, sunshine, granny, neatly, close, and negative - beard, fellow, bureaucratic etc. Since the emotional coloring of these words is created by affixes, the evaluative values in such cases are determined not by the nominative properties of the word, but by word formation.
The depiction of feelings in speech requires special expressive colors. Expressiveness(from Latin expressio - expression) - means expressiveness, expressive - containing special expression. At the lexical level, this linguistic category is embodied in the "increment" to the nominative meaning of the word of special stylistic shades, special expression. For example, instead of the word good, we say wonderful, wonderful, delicious, wonderful; I don't like it, but you can find stronger words: hate, despise, disgust... In all these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by expression. Often, one neutral word has several expressive synonyms that differ in the degree of emotional stress (cf. misfortune - grief - disaster - disaster, violent - unbridled - indomitable - violent - furious). Bright expression highlights the words solemn ( unforgettable, herald, accomplishments), rhetorical ( sacred, aspirations, proclaim), poetic ( azure, invisible, chant, unremitting). A special expression distinguishes the words playful ( faithful, newly minted), ironic ( deign, don Juan, vaunted), familiar ( not bad, cute, knock around, whisper). Expressive shades delimit disapproving words ( pretentious, mannered, ambitious, pedant), dismissive ( daunting, triviality), contemptuous ( to talk, groveling, toady), derogatory (skirt, squishy), vulgar ( grabber, lucky), abusive (boor, fool).
Expressive coloring in a word is layered on its emotional-evaluative meaning, and some words are dominated by expression, others - emotional coloring. Therefore, it is not possible to distinguish between emotional and expressive vocabulary. The situation is complicated by the fact that "unfortunately, there is no typology of expressiveness yet." This is associated with difficulties in developing a unified terminology.
By combining words that are similar in expression into lexical groups, we can distinguish: 1) words expressing a positive assessment of the named concepts, 2) words expressing their negative assessment. The first group will include high-pitched, affectionate, partly humorous words; in the second - ironic, disapproving, abusive, etc. The emotional-expressive coloring of words is clearly manifested when comparing synonyms:
The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. Words such as fascism, separatism, corruption, contract killer, mafia... Behind the words progressive, rule of law, statehood, glasnost etc. a positive color is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of the word can be solemn ( Wait, prince. Finally, I hear not the boy speak, but the husband.- P.), in another - the same word gets an ironic connotation ( G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the reputation of a learned man, so to speak, on his word of honor.- NS.).
The development of emotional and expressive shades in a word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as paths get vivid expression: to burn (at work), fall (from fatigue), suffocate (in unfavorable conditions), flaming (gaze), blue (dream), flying (gait), etc. etc. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mocking and ironic connotation; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuous. The appearance of a word, depending on the context, of additional expressive shades significantly expands the visual possibilities of vocabulary
The tasks of practical stylistics include the study of the use of vocabulary of various functional styles in speech - both as one of the style-forming elements, and as a foreign-style means, which stands out for its expression against the background of other linguistic means.
The use of terminological vocabulary, which has the most definite functional and stylistic significance, deserves special attention. - words or phrases calling special concepts of any sphere of production, science, art. Each term is necessarily based on the definition (definition) of the reality it denotes, due to which the terms represent a capacious and at the same time succinct characteristic of an object or phenomenon. Each branch of science operates with certain terms that make up the terminological system of this branch of knowledge.
As part of the terminological vocabulary, several "layers" can be distinguished, differing in the sphere of use, the content of the concept, and the characteristics of the designated object. In the most general terms, this division is reflected in the delimitation of general scientific terms (they constitute the general conceptual fund of science as a whole, it is not by chance that the words denoting them are the most frequent in scientific speech) and special ones, which are assigned to certain areas of knowledge. The use of this vocabulary is the most important advantage of the scientific style; terms, according to Sh. Bally, "are those ideal types of linguistic expression to which scientific language inevitably strives."
Terminological vocabulary contains more information than any other, therefore the use of terms in a scientific style is a necessary condition for brevity, conciseness, and accuracy of presentation.
The use of terms in works of scientific style is seriously investigated by modern linguistic science. It has been established that the degree of terminology of scientific texts is far from the same. The genres of scientific works are characterized by a different ratio of terminological and interstyle vocabulary. The frequency of the use of terms depends on the nature of the presentation.
Modern society requires from science such a form of description of the data obtained, which would make it possible to make the greatest achievements of the human mind the property of everyone. However, it is often said that science has fenced itself off from the world by a language barrier, that its language is “elitist”, “sectarian”. In order for the vocabulary of a scientific work to be accessible to the reader, the terms used in it must first of all be sufficiently mastered in this field of knowledge, understandable and known to specialists; new terms need to be clarified.
Scientific and technological progress has led to the intensive development of the scientific style and its active influence on other functional styles of the modern Russian literary language. The use of terms outside the scientific style has become a kind of sign of the times.
Studying the process of terminology of speech that is not bound by the norms of the scientific style, the researchers point out the distinctive features of the use of terms in this case. Many words with precise terminological meaning are widespread and are used without any stylistic restrictions ( radio, television, oxygen, heart attack, psychic, privatization). The other group includes words that have a dual nature: they can be used both in the function of terms and as a stylistically neutral vocabulary. In the first case, they differ in special shades of meanings, giving them special accuracy and unambiguity. So, the word mountain, meaning in its broad, interstyle usage, “significant elevation rising above the surrounding area,” and having a number of figurative meanings, does not imply an accurate quantitative measurement of height. In geographical terminology, where the distinction between the concepts of a mountain and a hill is essential, a clarification is given: an elevation of more than 200 m in height. Thus, the use of such words outside of the scientific style is associated with their partial determination.
Special features highlight the terminological vocabulary used in a figurative sense ( virus of indifference, coefficient of sincerity, another round of negotiations). Such a rethinking of terms is common in journalism, fiction, colloquial speech. A similar phenomenon lies in the mainstream of the development of the language of modern journalism, which is characterized by all sorts of stylistic shifts. The peculiarity of such word use is that "there is not only a metaphorical transfer of the meaning of the term, but also a stylistic transfer."
The introduction of terms into unscientific texts should be motivated, the abuse of terminological vocabulary deprives speech of the necessary simplicity and accessibility. Let's compare two versions of the proposals:
The advantage of "non-terminological", clearer and more concise versions in newspaper materials is obvious.
A stylistic assessment of the use of words with different stylistic coloration in speech can only be given in view of a specific text, a specific functional style, since the words necessary in one speech situation are inappropriate in another.
A serious stylistic flaw in speech can be the introduction of journalistic vocabulary into non-publicistic texts. For example: Council of residents of house number 35 decided: to build a playground, which is of great importance in educating the younger generation... The use of journalistic vocabulary and phraseology in such texts can cause a comic, illogical statement, since words of high emotional sounding here act as an alien stylistic element (one could write: The Council of Residents of House No. 35 decided to build a playground for children's games and sports.).
In the scientific style, errors arise from the inability of the author to professionally and correctly use terms. In scientific works, it is inappropriate to replace terms with words of similar meaning, descriptive expressions: Hydrant coupling with air-operated control with a load-resistant operator handle, was designed ...(necessary: hydrant coupling with pneumatic control system... ).
Inaccurate reproduction of terms is unacceptable, for example: The driver's movements should be limited. safety harness... Term seat belt is used in aviation, in the same case the term should have been used safety belt... Confusion in terminology not only damages the style, but also exposes the author of poor knowledge of the subject. For example: Peristaltism of the heart is noted, followed by stopping in the systole phase- the term peristaltism can only characterize the activity of the digestive organs (you should have written: Cardiac fibrillation is noted ...).
The inclusion of terminological vocabulary in texts that do not belong to the scientific style requires a deep knowledge of the subject from the author. An amateurish attitude towards special vocabulary, leading not only to stylistic errors, but also to semantic errors, is unacceptable. For example: At the Central German Canal, they were overtaken by furiously rushing cars from a bluish tide with armor-piercing glasses.- may be armor-piercing guns, shells, and glass should be called impenetrable, bulletproof. Severity in the choice of terms and their use in strict accordance with the meaning is a mandatory requirement for texts of any functional style.
The use of terms becomes a stylistic flaw in the presentation if they are incomprehensible to the reader for whom the text is intended. In this case, terminological vocabulary not only does not perform an informative function, but also interferes with the perception of the text. For example, in a popular article, the accumulation of special vocabulary is not justified: In 1763, the Russian heating engineer I.I. Polzunov designed the first multipower two-cylinder steam-atmospheric a car. Only in 1784 was D. Watt's steam engine implemented... The author wanted to emphasize the priority of Russian science in the invention of the steam engine, and in this case, the description of the Polzunov machine is superfluous. The following variant of stylistic editing is possible: The first steam engine was created by the Russian heat engineer I.I. Polzunov in 1763 D. Watt designed his steam engine only in 1784.
Passion for terms and book vocabulary in non-scientific texts can cause pseudoscientific presentation... For example, in a pedagogical article we read: Our women, along with work in production, perform and family and household function, which includes three components: childbearing, educational and economic... And it could have been simpler: Our women work in production and pay a lot of attention to the family, raising children, and household.
The pseudo-scientific style of presentation often causes inappropriate comic speech, so you should not complicate the text where you can express the idea simply. So, in magazines intended for the general reader, such a selection of vocabulary should not be welcomed: Ladder - specific interfloor connection room preschool institution - has no analogues in none of its interiors... Wouldn't it have been better to abandon the unjustified use of bookish words by writing: The staircase in preschool institutions connecting the floors has a special interior.
Stylistic errors in book styles can be caused by inappropriate use of colloquial and colloquial words. Their use is unacceptable in a formal business style, for example, in meeting minutes: Established effective control over the prudent use of feed on the farm; In the regional center and villages, the administration has done a certain amount of work, and yet there is a lot of work in the area of improvement.... These phrases can be corrected like this: ... Strictly control the consumption of feed on the farm; The administration has begun to improve the district center and villages. This work should be continued.
The use of foreign-style vocabulary is also not motivated in the scientific style. When stylistic editing of scientific texts, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary is successively replaced by interstyle or book vocabulary.
The use of colloquial and colloquial vocabulary sometimes leads to a violation of the stylistic norms of publicistic speech. The modern journalistic style is experiencing a strong expansion of vernacular. Many magazines and newspapers are dominated by a reduced style, saturated with evaluative non-literary vocabulary. Here are examples from articles on various topics.
As soon as the wind of change breathed, this praise of the intelligentsia dissipated into commerce, parties and governments. Pulling up her trousers, she threw away her disinterestedness and her forehead Panurgs.
And now 1992 ... Philosophers poured out of the ground like russula. Quelty, stunted, not yet accustomed to daylight ... Seemingly good guys, but infected with the eternal domestic self-criticism with a masochistic bias ... ( Igor Martynov // Interlocutor. - 1992. - No. 41. - P. 3).
Seven years ago, everyone who was considered the first beauty in the classroom or in the yard came to the Miss Russia contest seven years ago as applicants ... arranged a showdown... This is the fate of many girls who are now working hard on the catwalks in Paris and the Americas ( Lyudmila Volkova // MK).
The Moscow government will have to fork out. One of his latest acquisitions - a controlling stake in AMO - ZiL - needs to unfasten 51 billion rubles in September to complete the program of in-line production of the ZiL-5301 light-duty vehicle ( Ride or Ride // MK).
When analyzing errors caused by the unjustified use of stylistically colored vocabulary, special attention should be paid to words related to the official business style. The elements of the official business style, introduced into a stylistically alien context for them, are called clericalisms. It should be remembered that these speech means are called clericalisms only when they are used in speech that is not bound by the norms of the official business style.
Lexical and phraseological clericalisms include words and phrases that have a typical color for the official business style ( the presence, in the absence, in order to avoid, reside, withdraw, the above, takes place etc.). Their use makes speech expressionless ( If there is a desire, much can be done to improve the working conditions of workers; Currently, there is a lack of teaching staff).
As a rule, you can find many options for expressing thoughts, avoiding bureaucracy. For example, why would a journalist write: There is a negative side to the business of marriage if we can say: It is bad when an enterprise releases a marriage; Marriage is unacceptable in work; Marriage is a great evil that must be fought; It is necessary to prevent defects in production; We must finally stop producing defective products !; You can't put up with marriage! A simple and specific formulation has a stronger impact on the reader.
The clerical coloring of speech is often given verbal nouns formed with the suffixes -ni-, -ani-, etc. ( revealing, finding, taking, bloating, closing) and non-accessory ( sewing, hijacking, day off). The clerical shade is aggravated by the prefixes not-, under- ( non-detection, underperformance). Russian writers often parodied the syllable, "decorated" with such bureaucracy [ The case of gnawing a plan thereof with mice(Hertz.); The case of a crow entering and breaking glass(Pis.); Announcing to the widow Vanina that she did not stick the sixty kopeck mark ...(Ch.)].
Verbal nouns do not have categories of tense, type, mood, voice, person. This narrows their expressive possibilities in comparison with verbs. For example, such a sentence is devoid of precision: From the head of the farm V.I. The slime was negligent in milking and feeding the cows. You might think that the manager did not milk and feed the cows poorly, but the author only wanted to say that The head of the farm V.I. Shlyk did nothing to facilitate the work of the milkmaids, to prepare feed for the livestock. The inability to express the meaning of the voice with a verbal noun can lead to an ambiguity in the type construction professor's approval(does the professor approve or is he approved?), I like singing (I like to sing or listen when they sing?).
In sentences with verbal nouns, the predicate is often expressed by a passive participle or a reflexive verb, this deprives the action of activity and enhances the clerical coloring of speech [ At the end of the acquaintance with the sights, tourists were allowed to photograph them(better: Tourists were shown the sights and allowed to photograph them)].
However, not all verbal nouns in the Russian language belong to the official business vocabulary, they are diverse in stylistic coloring, which largely depends on the peculiarities of their lexical meaning and word formation. Verbal nouns with the meaning of a person ( teacher, self-taught, confusion, bully), many nouns with the meaning of action ( running, crying, playing, washing, shooting, bombing).
Verbal nouns with book suffixes can be divided into two groups. Some are stylistically neutral ( meaning, name, excitement), for many of them -nye changed into -nye, and they began to denote not an action, but its result (cf. baking pies - sweet biscuits, cherry jam - cherry jam). Others retain a close connection with verbs, acting as abstract names for actions, processes ( acceptance, non-identification, non-admission). It is precisely such nouns that are most often inherent in clerical coloring, only those who have received a strict terminological meaning in the language ( drilling, spelling, abutting).
The use of clericalisms of this type is associated with the so-called "splitting of the predicate", i.e. replacing a simple verbal predicate with a combination of a verbal noun with an auxiliary verb that has a weakened lexical meaning (instead of complicating it, it leads to complication). So, they write: This leads to complication, confusion of accounting and increased costs., and it is better to write: This complicates and confuses accounting, increases costs..
However, in the stylistic assessment of this phenomenon, one should not go to the extreme, rejecting any cases of using verb-nominal combinations instead of verbs. In book styles, such combinations are often used: took part instead of participated, gave an instruction instead of indicated, etc. In the official business style, verb-nominal combinations are fixed declare gratitude, accept for execution, impose a penalty(in these cases, the verbs thank, fulfill, collect inappropriate), etc. The scientific style uses terminological combinations such as visual fatigue occurs, self-regulation occurs, transplantation is performed etc. Expressions function in a journalistic style workers went on strike, there were clashes with the police, an attempt was made on the minister etc. In such cases, verbal nouns cannot be dispensed with and there is no reason to consider them clerical.
The use of verbal-nominal combinations sometimes even creates conditions for speech expression. For example, the combination take an ardent part more capacious in meaning than the verb participate. The definition with a noun allows you to give a verb-nominal combination an exact terminological meaning (cf .: help - provide emergency medical care). The use of a verbal-nominal combination instead of a verb can also contribute to the elimination of the lexical polysemy of verbs (cf .: give beep - beep). The preference for such verb-nominal combinations of verbs, of course, is beyond doubt; their use does not harm the style, but, on the contrary, makes speech more effective.
In other cases, the use of a verbal-nominal combination brings a clerical coloring to the sentence. Let's compare two types of syntactic constructions - with a verb-nominal combination and with a verb:
As you can see, the use of a turnover with verbal nouns (instead of a simple predicate) in such cases is inappropriate - it generates verbosity and burdens the syllable.
The influence of the official business style often explains the unjustified use of abominable pretexts: along the line, in section, in part, in deed, in force, for purposes, in the address, in the area, in the plan, at the level, at the expense of and others. They have become widespread in book styles, and under certain conditions, their use is stylistically justified. However, infatuation with them often damages the presentation, making the syllable heavier and giving it a clerical color. This is partly due to the fact that abusive prepositions usually require the use of verbal nouns, which leads to stringing of cases. For example: By improving the organization of paying off salary and pension arrears, improving the culture of customer service, turnover in state and commercial stores should increase- the accumulation of verbal nouns, many of the same case forms made the sentence heavy, cumbersome. To correct the text, it is necessary to exclude the abbreviated preposition from it, if possible, replace verbal nouns with verbs. Let's say this edit option: To increase the turnover in state and commercial stores, it is necessary to pay salaries on time and not delay the pension of citizens, as well as to improve the culture of customer service.
Some authors use abbreviated prepositions automatically, without thinking about their meaning, which is partly still preserved in them. For example: Due to the lack of materials, construction has been suspended(as if someone foresaw that there would be no materials, and therefore the construction was suspended). Incorrect use of abusive prepositions often leads to illogical statements.
Let's compare two versions of the proposals:
The exclusion of abbreviated prepositions from the text, as we can see, eliminates verbosity, helps to express a thought more concretely and stylistically correctly.
The use of speech stamps is usually associated with the influence of the official business style. Speech stamps words and expressions with erased semantics and faded emotional coloring are becoming widespread. So, in a variety of contexts, the expression to get a registration ( Each ball that enters the goal net receives a permanent registration in the tables; The muse of Petrovsky has a permanent residence in the hearts; Aphrodite entered the permanent exhibition of the museum - now she is registered in our city).
Any frequently repeated speech means can become a stamp, for example, stereotyped metaphors, definitions that have lost their figurative power due to constant reference to them, even hackneyed rhymes (tears are roses). However, in practical stylistics, the term "speech stamp" has received a narrower meaning: this is the name for stereotypical expressions that have a clerical coloration.
Among the speech cliches that arose as a result of the influence of the official business style on other styles, one can first of all distinguish formulaic turns of speech: at this stage, in this period of time, to date, emphasized with all the acuteness etc. As a rule, they do not add anything to the content of the statement, but only clog up the speech: At a given time a difficult situation has developed with the elimination of debts to supplier enterprises; Currently the payment of wages to miners was taken under unremitting control; At this stage, the spawn of the crucian carp goes well, etc. Excluding the highlighted words will not change anything in the information.
Speech stamps also include universal words, which are used in very different, often too broad, undefined meanings ( question, event, series, conduct, unfold, separate, specific etc.). For example, the noun question, acting as a universal word, never indicates what is being asked about ( Nutrition issues in the first 10-12 days are especially important; The issues of timely collection of tax from enterprises and commercial structures deserve great attention.). In such cases, it can be painlessly excluded from the text (cf .: Nutrition in the first 10-12 days is especially important; It is necessary to collect taxes from enterprises and commercial structures in a timely manner).
The word to appear as universal is also often superfluous; This can be seen by comparing two versions of sentences from newspaper articles:
| 1. The use of chemicals for this purpose is very important. | 1. For this purpose, chemicals must be used. |
| 2. An important event is the commissioning of the production line in the Vidnovsky shop. | 2. The new production line in the Vidnovsky shop will significantly increase labor productivity. | Speech cliches, relieving the speaker of the need to look for the right, exact words, deprive speech of concreteness. For example: This season was held at a high organizational level- this proposal can be inserted into the report on hay harvesting, sports competitions, preparation of housing stock for winter, and grape harvest ...
They belong to the branch of science that deals with teaching the differentiated use of language in communication, and also provides knowledge with regards to the language itself and the corresponding means necessary for its use. It is called "stylistics", and its predecessor was rhetoric (the concept of oratory), which dealt exclusively with the public style of speech. Stylistics as a science covers all systems of speech means. This is a kind of teaching regarding the most effective forms of expression of thoughts and feelings.
What are stylistically colored words?
They are used exclusively in specific styles, in particular:
- Scientific vocabulary. It includes words that are used in the field of education, science and technology (for example, range, laser, etc.).
- Political vocabulary. This includes words used in the public, political field (candidate, dissertation, Duma, etc.).
- It is represented by words that are used mainly in everyday communication, orally (great, pictures, internet, etc.). Within the framework of works of art, it is used to characterize the main characters.
Summing up the above, we can formulate what stylistically colored words are. These are words that have an additional meaning, more precisely, they name an object and convey its appropriate assessment (neglect, approval, irony, etc.), as well as certain emotions in relation to it.
A variety of stylistic coloring
It is represented by two components:
1. Functional-target stylistic coloration (coloration of individual language units), which, in turn, is subdivided into three main types:
- colloquial;
- bookstore;
- neutral.
The first two types can be:
Grammatical forms (for example, contracts (neutral) - contracts (colloquial);
Words (for example, place (neutral) - location (book);
Phraseologisms (for example, to stretch your legs (colloquial) - to rest in eternal sleep (book);
Suggestions (for example, due to non-flying weather conditions, the departure is delayed (neutral) - because of the fog I did not fly away (conversational).
2. Expressive-evaluative stylistic coloring (there is no reference to a specific style, contained in the word itself) includes three types:
- reduced;
- increased;
- neutral.
Example: life (neutral) - life (reduced) - life (increased).
Neutral and stylistically colored words
The vocabulary in the literary language is usually divided into two main components: stylistically colored and neutral vocabulary.
Neutral vocabulary - words that are not tied to any of the existing styles of speech, that is, they can be used in any system of speech means, because they are not expressively and emotionally colored. However, these words have stylistic synonyms (colloquial, bookish, colloquial).
According to the theory of MV Lomonosov ("Three Calms"), all other words refer either to a high system of speech means (for example, to rest, homeland, etc.), or to a low (for example, the other day, belly, etc.) .).
In this regard, there is a colloquial vocabulary (gray gelding, tsyts, etc.) and a book, which, in turn, is divided into the following types:
Directions of linguistic stylistics
There are two of them, in particular:
- language style;
- stylistics of speech (functional stylistics).
The first direction studies the stylistic means of vocabulary, grammar and phraseology, as well as the stylistic structure of the language.
Second - different types of speech and their conditionality by various purposes of the statement.
Linguistic stylistics should contain the principle of consistency and functionality and reflect the relationship of various types of speech for the purpose of expression, its subject matter, communication conditions, the author's attitude and the addressee of speech.
Styles are various combinations of the use of language in the process of communication. Each system of speech means is characterized by the originality of the language means used, as well as their unique combination with each other.
Thus, it is worth formulating a definition of what is linguistic stylistics. This is, first of all, a section of linguistics that studies various styles (language, speech, genre, etc.). Also, the subject of her research is the emotional, expressive and evaluative properties of linguistic units both in the paradigmatic plane (within the framework of the language system) and in the syntagmatic aspect (in various spheres of communication).
The structure of the considered section of linguistics
These include combinations that are sustainable (employment service, public sector workers, international, etc.). They are widely used by journalists due to the fact that it is impossible to constantly invent fundamentally new means of expression.
The stylistic coloring of a word depends on how it is perceived by us: as assigned to a particular style or as appropriate in any speech situation, that is, commonly used.
We feel the connection of words-terms with the language of science (for example: quantum theory, experiment, monoculture); highlight the journalistic vocabulary (worldwide, rule of law, congress, commemorate, proclaim, election campaign); we recognize the words of the official business style by the clerical coloring (victim, accommodation, prohibited, prescribe).
Book words are inappropriate in casual conversation: "On green spaces the first leaves appeared ”; “We walked in the forest array and sunbathed by the reservoir ". Faced with such a mixture of styles, we hasten to replace foreign words with their commonly used synonyms (not green spaces, a trees, bushes; not Forest, a Forest; not water, a Lake).
Colloquial, and even more vernacular, that is, those outside the literary norm, words cannot be used in a conversation with a person with whom we are associated with official relations, or in an official setting.
The use of stylistically colored words should be motivated. Depending on the content of the speech, its style, on the environment in which the word is born, and even on how the speakers relate to each other (with sympathy or dislike), they use different words.
High vocabulary is necessary when they talk about something important, significant. This vocabulary finds application in the speeches of orators, in poetic speech, where a solemn, pathetic tone is justified. But if, for example, you are thirsty, it would not occur to you to turn to your comrade with a tirade on such a trifling occasion: “ O my unforgettable companion and friend! Quench my thirst with life-giving moisture!»
If words that have one or another stylistic connotation are used ineptly, they give the speech a comic sound.
Even in ancient manuals on eloquence, for example, in Aristotle's "Rhetoric", much attention was paid to style. According to Aristotle, he "must approach the subject of speech"; important things should be talked about seriously, choosing expressions that will give speech a sublime sound. Trivia is not spoken solemnly, in this case, words are used joking, contemptuous, that is, reduced vocabulary. MV Lomonosov also pointed out the opposition of “high” and “low” words in the theory of “three calm”. Modern explanatory dictionaries give stylistic marks to words, noting their solemn, sublime sound, and also highlighting the words reduced, contemptuous, derogatory, dismissive, vulgar, abusive.
Of course, while talking, we cannot look into the explanatory dictionary every time, specifying the stylistic mark for a particular word, but we feel which word should be used in a certain situation. The choice of stylistically colored vocabulary depends on our attitude towards what we are talking about. Let's take a simple example.
Two argued:
I can't take seriously what this one says blond youth,- said one.
And in vain, - objected another, - the arguments of this blond youth very convincing.
In these contradictory remarks, a different attitude towards the young blond is expressed: one of the disputants chose offensive words for him, emphasizing his disdain; the other, on the contrary, tried to find words that expressed sympathy. The synonymous riches of the Russian language provide ample opportunities for the stylistic choice of evaluative vocabulary. Some words contain a positive assessment, others a negative one.
As part of the evaluative vocabulary, words that are emotionally and expressively colored are distinguished. Words that convey the speaker's attitude to their meaning belong to emotional vocabulary (emotional - means based on feeling, evoked by emotions). Emotional vocabulary expresses a variety of feelings.
There are many words in the Russian language that have a bright emotional connotation. This is easy to verify by comparing words that are close in meaning: blond, blond, whitish, whitish, whitish, lily; cute, charming, charming, delightful, cute; eloquent, chatty; proclaim, blurt out, blurt out etc. Comparing them, we try to choose the most expressive ones, which can convey our thought more strongly and convincingly. For example, one might say I do not like, but stronger words can be found: I hate, despise, disgust. In these cases, the lexical meaning of the word is complicated by a special expression.
Expression means expressiveness (from lat. expressio- expression). Expressive vocabulary includes words that enhance the expressiveness of speech. Often one neutral word has several expressive synonyms, differing in the degree of emotional stress: misfortune, grief, calamity, catastrophe; violent, unrestrained, indomitable, frantic, furious. Quite often synonyms with the opposite coloration gravitate towards the same neutral word: ask- beg, beg; cry- cry, cry.
Expressively colored words can acquire a variety of stylistic shades, as indicated by labels in dictionaries: solemn (unforgettable, accomplishments), high (forerunner), rhetorical (sacred, aspirations), poetic (azure, invisible). The reduced words, which are marked with labels, sharply differ from all these words: playful (faithful, newly minted), ironic (deign, vaunted), familiar (not bad, whispering), disapproving (pedant), disparaging (daub), contemptuous (toady) derogatory (squishy), vulgar (grabber), swearing (fool).
Evaluative vocabulary requires careful attention to yourself. Inappropriate use of emotionally and expressive words can make speech sound comic. This often happens in student essays. For example: "Nozdryov was an inveterate bully." "All Gogol landowners are fools, parasites, loafers and dystrophies."
Expressive styles
The modern science of language distinguishes, along with functional styles, expressive styles, which are classified depending on the expression contained in the linguistic elements. For these styles, the most important function is the impact.
Expressive styles include solemn (high, rhetorical), official, familiar (reduced), as well as intimate-affectionate, playful (ironic), mocking (satirical). These styles are contrasted with neutral, that is, devoid of expression.
The main means of achieving the desired expressive coloration of speech is evaluative vocabulary. In its composition, three types can be distinguished. 1. Words with a vivid evaluative meaning. These include the words "characteristics" (forerunner, herald, pioneer; grouch, chatterbox, sneak, slob etc.), as well as words containing an assessment of a fact, phenomenon, sign, action (purpose, predestination, parsimony, deceit; marvelous, miraculous, irresponsible, antediluvian; dare, inspire, defame, defile). 2. Polysemous words, usually neutral in their basic meaning, but receiving a bright emotional coloring when used metaphorically. So, they say about a person: hat, rag, mattress, oak, elephant, bear, snake, eagle, crow; verbs are used figuratively: sing, hiss, nag, gnaw, dig, yawn, blink etc. 3. Words with suffixes of subjective assessment, conveying various shades of feeling: positive emotions - son, sunshine, granny, neatly, close and negative - beard, fellow, bureaucratic etc.
The Russian language is rich in lexical synonyms that contrast in their expressive coloring. For example:
stylistically lowered high
neutral
face muzzle face
obstacle obstacle obstacle
cry cry cry
be afraid to be afraid to be afraid
expel expel expel
The emotionally expressive coloring of a word is influenced by its meaning. Words such as fascism, separatism, corruption, contract killer, mafia. Behind the words progressive, rule of law, statehood, glasnost etc. a positive color is fixed. Even different meanings of the same word can differ markedly in stylistic coloring: in one case, the use of the word can be solemn (Wait, prince. Finally, I hear not the boy's speech, but husband. - P.), in another - the same word gets an ironic connotation (G. Polevoy proved that the venerable editor enjoys the fame of a scientist husband, so to speak, on my word of honor.- NS.).
The development of emotional and expressive shades in a word is facilitated by its metaphorization. So, stylistically neutral words used as tropes get vivid expression: burn(at work), fall(from fatigue) suffocate(in unfavorable conditions), blazing(look), blue(dream), flying(gait), etc. The context finally determines the expressive coloring: neutral words can be perceived as lofty and solemn; high vocabulary in other conditions acquires a mocking and ironic connotation; sometimes even a swear word can sound affectionate, and affectionate - contemptuous.
Emotionally expressive coloring is layered on functional, complementing its stylistic characteristics. Emotionally neutral words usually refer to common vocabulary. Emotionally expressive words are distributed between the book, colloquial and vernacular vocabulary.
The book vocabulary includes high words that give a speech solemnity, as well as emotionally expressive words that express both a positive and a negative assessment of the named concepts. Book styles use ironic vocabulary (good-naturedness, words, quixotism), disapproving (pedantic, mannerism), contemptuous (disguise, corrupt).
Colloquial vocabulary includes affectionate words (daughter, darling), joking (butuz, laugh), as well as words expressing a negative assessment of the called concepts (small fry, zealous, giggle, boast).
In common parlance, reduced words are used that are outside the literary vocabulary. Among them there may be words expressing a positive assessment of the called concept (hard worker, brainy, funky), and words expressing the speaker's negative attitude to the concepts they designate (go crazy, flimsy, dumb etc.).
In expressive styles, syntactic means are also widely used, which enhance the emotionality of speech. Russian syntax has enormous expressive possibilities. These are different types of one-part and incomplete sentences, and a special word order, and inserted and introductory constructions, and words that are not grammatically related to the members of the sentence. Among them, appeals stand out especially, they are able to convey a great intensity of passions, and in other cases - to emphasize the official nature of speech. Compare Pushkin's lines:
Pets of Windy Fate,
Tyrants of the world! tremble!
And you, take heart and heed,
Rise, fallen slaves! -
and an appeal by V. Mayakovsky:
Citizen Financial Inspector!
I'm sorry to trouble you...
Bright stylistic colors are fraught with direct and improperly direct speech, exclamation and interrogative sentences, especially rhetorical questions.
The rhetorical question is one of the most common stylistic figures, characterized by remarkable brightness and a variety of emotionally expressive shades. Rhetorical questions contain a statement (or denial), framed as a question that does not require an answer: Didn't you at first so viciously persecute His free, courageous gift And fanned a slightly hidden fire for fun? ..(L . ).
Rhetorical questions, which coincide in external grammatical design with ordinary interrogative sentences, are distinguished by bright exclamatory intonation, expressing amazement, extreme tension of feelings. It is no coincidence that the authors sometimes at the end of rhetorical questions put an exclamation mark or two marks - a question and an exclamation point: Should her female mind, brought up in seclusion, doomed to alienate from real life, not know how dangerous such aspirations are and how they end ?!(Bel.); And how is it that you still don't understand and don't know that love, like friendship, like salary, like fame, like everything in the world, should be deserved and supported ?!(Good.)
Emotional tension of speech is also conveyed by connecting structures, that is, those in which phrases do not fit into one semantic plane at once, but form an associative chain of attachment. For example: Every city has an age and a voice. We have our own clothes. And a special smell. And the face. And not immediately understandable pride (Born). I recognize the role of personality in history. Especially if it's the president. Moreover, the President of Russia (V. Chernomyrdin // Izvestia. - 1997. - Jan. 29).
Punctuation allows the author to convey the discontinuity of speech, unexpected pauses, reflecting the emotional excitement of the speaker. Let us recall the words of Anna Snegina in the poem by Sergei Yesenin: - Look ... It's getting light already. Dawn is like a fire in the snow ... Something reminds me ... But what? .. I can't understand ... Ah! .. Yes ... It was in childhood ... Another ... Not an autumn dawn ... You and I sat together ... We are sixteen years old ...
Particular expressiveness is given to the speech of the trope (column tropos- turn, turn, image) - words used in a figurative sense: metaphors ( Earth- ship. But someone suddenly ... Into the thick of storms and blizzards sent her majestically.- EU.); comparisons (I was like a horse, driven in soap, Spurred by a brave rider.- EU.); epithets (Dissuaded the golden grove with a birch, cheerful tongue.- EU.); metonymy (Let the pencil clumsily whisper about many things to paper.- EU.); allegories (My white linden has faded, The nightingale dawn has rung.- EU) and other figurative expressions.
The lexical wealth of the Russian language, tropes and emotional syntax create inexhaustible possibilities for expressive styles.
Chapter 2
Similar information.